7 4 6
PA R T T W E LV E
S H O R T - R U N E C O N O M I C F L U C T U AT I O N S
To gauge the impact on aggregate demand of a change in government pur-
chases, we follow the effects step-by-step. The process begins when the govern-
ment spends $20 billion, which implies that national income (earnings and profits)
also rises by this amount. This increase in income in turn raises consumer spend-
ing by
MPC
$20 billion, which in turn raises the income for the workers and
owners of the firms that produce the consumption goods. This second increase in
income again raises consumer spending, this time by
MPC
(
MPC
$20 billion).
These feedback effects go on and on.
To find the total impact on the demand for goods and services, we add up all
these effects:
Change in government purchases
$20
billion
First
change in consumption
MPC
$20 billion
Second change in consumption
MPC
2
$20 billion
Third change in consumption
MPC
3
$20 billion
•
•
•
•
•
•
Total change in demand
(1
MPC
MPC
2
MPC
3
· · ·)
$20 billion.
Here, “. . .” represents an infinite number of similar terms. Thus, we can write the
multiplier as follows:
Quantity of
Output
Price
Level
0
Aggregate demand,
AD
1
$20 billion
AD
2
AD
3
1. An increase in government purchases
of $20 billion initially
increases aggregate
demand by $20 billion . . .
2. . . . but the multiplier
effect can amplify the
shift in aggregate
demand.
F i g u r e 3 2 - 4
T
HE
M
ULTIPLIER
E
FFECT
.
An
increase in government
purchases of $20
billion can
shift the aggregate-demand
curve to the right by more than
$20 billion. This multiplier
effect arises because increases
in aggregate
income
stimulate additional
spending by consumers.
C H A P T E R 3 2
T H E I N F L U E N C E O F M O N E TA R Y A N D F I S C A L P O L I C Y O N A G G R E G AT E D E M A N D
7 4 7
Multiplier
1
MPC
MPC
2
MPC
3
· · · ·
This multiplier tells us the demand for goods and services that each dollar of gov-
ernment purchases generates.
To simplify this equation for the multiplier, recall from math class that this ex-
pression is an infinite geometric series. For
x
between
1 and
1,
1
x
x
2
x
3
· · ·
1/(1
x
).
In our case,
x
MPC.
Thus,
Multiplier
1/(1
MPC
).
For example, if
MPC
is 3/4, the multiplier is 1/(1
3/4), which is 4. In this case,
the $20 billion of government spending generates $80 billion of demand for goods
and services.
This formula for the multiplier shows an important conclusion: The size of the
multiplier depends on the marginal propensity to consume. Whereas an
MPC
of
3/4 leads to a multiplier of 4, an
MPC
of 1/2 leads to a multiplier of only 2. Thus,
a larger
MPC
means a larger multiplier. To see why this is true, remember that the
multiplier arises because higher income induces greater spending on consump-
tion. The larger the
MPC
is, the greater is this induced effect on consumption, and
the larger is the multiplier.
O T H E R A P P L I C AT I O N S O F T H E M U LT I P L I E R E F F E C T
Because of the multiplier effect, a dollar of government purchases can generate
more than a dollar of aggregate demand. The logic of the multiplier effect, how-
ever, is not restricted to changes in government purchases. Instead, it applies to
any event that alters spending on any component of GDP—consumption, invest-
ment,
government purchases, or net exports.
For example, suppose that a recession overseas reduces the demand for U.S.
net exports by $10 billion. This reduced spending on U.S. goods and services de-
presses U.S. national income, which reduces spending by U.S. consumers. If the
marginal propensity to consume is 3/4 and the multiplier is 4, then the $10 billion
fall in net exports means a $40 billion contraction in aggregate demand.
As another example, suppose that a stock-market boom increases households’
wealth and stimulates their spending on goods and services by $20 billion. This ex-
tra consumer spending increases national income, which in turn generates even
more consumer spending. If the marginal propensity to consume is 3/4 and the
multiplier is 4, then the initial impulse of $20 billion in consumer spending trans-
lates into an $80 billion increase in aggregate demand.
The multiplier is an important concept in macroeconomics because it shows
how the economy can amplify the impact of changes in spending. A small initial
change in consumption, investment, government purchases, or net exports can
end up having a large effect on aggregate demand and, therefore, the economy’s
production of goods and services.
7 4 8
PA R T T W E LV E
S H O R T - R U N E C O N O M I C F L U C T U AT I O N S
T H E C R O W D I N G - O U T E F F E C T
The multiplier effect seems to suggest that when the government buys $20 billion
of planes from Boeing, the resulting expansion in aggregate demand is necessarily
larger than $20 billion. Yet another effect is working in the opposite direction.
While an increase in government purchases stimulates the aggregate demand for
goods and services, it also causes the interest rate to rise, and a higher interest rate
reduces investment spending and chokes off aggregate demand. The reduction in
aggregate demand that results when a fiscal expansion raises the interest rate is
called the
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