was sayin that and <$O> all here look he‟s <\$O> getting fat.
229
<$O> He‟s getting fat <\$O>.
I‟m puttin on weight.
Prosodically, on these occasions there appears to be slightly more stress on
think
than
I
, with
think
having a falling intonation. However, the context provides clear
indications that the function is in fact deliberative. In his first utterance, son 1 asserts
that this student is fat and daughter 1 appears to contradict him claiming that
He’s
fierce healthy now I’m not jokin you
. Murphy (2010), in an analysis of casual
conversation among females in their twenties, has demonstrated a high level of
hedging in order to cover uncertainty or downtone assertiveness in case the speaker
is wrong or his/her opinion differs from that of the other interlocutors in the group. It
can clearly be seen that as the conversation progresses, daughter 1 appears to realise
that her opinion is different to son 1 and she reformulates her position using
I think
on three occasions and this functions to soften her initial disagreeing act thus
protecting her face and how she is perceived within the sibling group.
Similarly to the marker
like
,
I think
does not function as a hedge in TravCorp.
However, in contrast to
like
, not only does
I think
not function as a hedge, it does not
occur in TravCorp. Stubbe and Holmes (1995) observe that
I think
shows a clear
differentiation in socio-economic status, with middle class speakers consistently
using more of the marker than working class speakers (see also Woods, 1991;
Huspek, 1989). Although the Traveller community could, in theory, be classified
„classless‟, O‟Sullivan (2004) has demonstrated that Travellers display many
features typical of working class speakers, such as subject-verb non-concord.
Markkanen and Schröder (1997), although exploring the use of hedging in
academic/scientific writing, make an important point that may also go some way
towards explaining the absence of
I think
, and indeed other hedges, in TravCorp.
They claim that hedges acquire their meaning „through a process of author-reader
interaction, on the basis of the text and the communicative situation‟ (p. 9). This
interaction is somewhat controlled by
culture
, „since people who belong to a
particular language community normally shared socially determined aesthetic ideals
through their shared educational background‟ (
ibid.
).
230
The speaker profiles for both SettCorp and TravCorp also reveal differences in
educational attainment in the settled and Traveller family which may account for the
variation between the two families‟ pragmatic systems. In SettCorp, three of the
children are students at third level and one is a student at second level. Although
there are no educational qualifications recorded for the children in TravCorp, in the
Traveller community as a whole, two-thirds of all school leavers are educated to, at
most, Primary level (Central Statistics Office, 2004). In addition to this, a study into
the educational background of Travellers in Galway revealed that no Traveller had a
third level degree, in contrast with a rate of 26% in the settled population (Irwin,
2006). Therefore, it is possible that hedges such as
I think
have been acquired by the
members of the settled family in the educational sphere, and their usage has then
been invoked in the family setting, something that may not occur in the Traveller
family due to the differing levels of educational experience. In a cross-cultural
comparison of the use of discourse markers in pedagogic settings, Fung and Carter
(2007), using a pedagogic sub-corpus from CANCODE and a corpus of interactive
classroom discourse of secondary pupils in Hong Kong, reveal extremely high
instances of
I think
in the student corpus, in fact the marker is comparatively more
frequent in the Hong Kong corpus than in the CANCODE sub-corpus. They claim
that „
I think
is used very heavily to mark both speaker‟s thoughts and to express
attitude, a process that has become automatic and highly routinised to the extent that
pragmatic fossilisation is evidenced‟ (p. 431). This presence in a pedagogic context
may suggest that the marker was acquired there and is viewed by students as an
appropriate marker for use in this discourse sphere.
If, as hypothesised here, hedges such
I think
are acquired in the educational sphere, it
could be claimed that the Traveller family have, perhaps, rejected these hedges due
to a past Traveller education policy that viewed education as a matter of settlement,
a way of taking the Traveller out of the child (Pavee Point, 2009). Huspek (1989),
seeking to account for instances of linguistic variability and power, analyses
occurrences of
you know
/
I think
in American industrial workers‟ speech, a group he
delineates as socially disadvantaged due to their occupation and educational
qualifications. He notes that among the workers, the ratio of occurrence of
you know
to
I think
is 8:1. He also observes „strong sentiments against the use of the latter
sequence [
I think
] unless its semantic force is diminished, if not entirely negated, or
231
at least altered in significant respects‟ (p. 670). Accordingly, all instances of
I think
(except one) are used in conjunction with modals and the markers
you know
and
I
don’t know
by the workers. This, he claims, allows the workers to express individual
opinions while showing consideration for the group, necessary because in the
workplace it is the group that wields the most power in the form of union activity
and so on. Therefore, in order to oppose the dominant educational ideology, the
Travellers as a group may have created what Huspek terms „verbal resistance
stratagems‟ (p. 681) that operate to challenge disadvantage.
Similarly, Youmans (2001), in a study the English speech of Chicano barrio
residents and what she terms „Anglo‟ visitors to this community, attempts to
elucidate the connection between language use and values developed in conjunction
with community marginality. She claims that Chicanos use
I think
primarily to signal
evidentiality, whereas the dominant, white, middle classes use the marker to soften
advice or suggestion, a function not evident in the Chicano data. Youmans claims
that Chicanos „may see Anglos‟ (probably unconscious) use of evidentials for non-
evidential functions as „hypocritical‟‟ (p. 62). This view of middle class language
use originates, she maintains, in the beliefs and attitudes prevalent in Chicano
culture such as close identification with family, community and ethnic grouping,
beliefs also strongly established in the Traveller Community. Youmans equates the
Anglo use of
I think
with the language required for success in wider society. She
contends that the Chicano refusal to match the language norms of the dominant class
perpetuates their position as a non-powerful, disadvantaged group in American
society. Akin to the Chicanos, the Traveller Community‟s „failure‟ to employ
linguistic forms and functions such as the use of
I think
for hedging purposes may
have a direct influence on their continuing marginalisation in modern-day Ireland.
8.2.3
Just
According to Aijmer (2002: 158), the pragmatic marker
just
has procedural meaning
in that it functions as a signal to the hearer to interpret the speaker‟s utterance as an
expression of an attitude. Therefore,
just
, like many other pragmatic markers, is
rarely semantically neutral in that there is an element of evaluation attached to its
use. Lee (1987) maintains that
just
belongs to Halliday‟s
interpersonal component
,
232
denoting that instead of being concerned with the structure or grammar of the
propositional meaning, the marker orientates the expression of propositional
meaning towards the roles and attitudes of the conversational participants. As Table
8.5 demonstrates,
just
is a frequent element in many spoken corpora:
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