The bukharan emirate and turkestan under russian rule in the revolutionary era: 1917-1924

4.1. Basmachi Movement in Central Asia
British interests were under the threat because of the expansion of the Turkish 
armies towards the Caucasus and the capture of Baku by Turkish General Nuri 

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Pasha, half-brother of Enver Pasha. Also, German officers were operating in Kabul 
for offering cooperation to the Afghan Emir Habibullah against British existence in 
India. On the other side, thousands of Austrian and Hungarian prisoners released 
after the collapse of Tsarist regime, were all around Turkistan. So, these 
developments alarmed Britain’s anxiety to secure its interests in India.
234
While 
Turkish-German influence began to spread from the Caucasus towards Turkistan and 
Afghanistan over the corridor of North Persia, Britain began taking a series of 
precautions such as sending General Dunsterville to Baku and General Malleson to 
North Persia.
235
The mission of Malleson was to support a group of Mensheviks and 
aided them for establishing government in Ashkhabad against the Bolsheviks. British 
alliance with the Mensheviks was based on Mensheviks’ policy of continuation of 
war against the Central Powers while the Bolsheviks decided to withdraw from war. 
236
“The British action was never intended to do more than achieve the limited object 
of preventing the use of Turkistan with its communications as a springboard for 
attack on India, but in carrying this out it inevitably made more difficult the 
execution of Soviet general policy in the same quarter.” 
237

The Basmachi movement emerged in Fergana Valley in which numerous 
peasant rebels occurred without any political reaction.
238
After the Kokand 
government was destroyed by the Soviets, the insurrections took a political shape, 
because the leaders of the failed Kokand government participated in the Basmachi 
uprising to struggle against the Red Army.
239
There were several groups, adding the 
234
Caroe, Olaf, 
Soviet Empire:
The Turks of Central Asia and Stalinism,
(New York: St. Martin’s 
Press, 1967), 115. 
235
Ibid,116. 
236
Ibid,117. 
237
Ibid, 118. 
238
Allworth, Edward et al., 
Central Asia: A Century of Russian Rule
,ed. Edward Allworth,(New 
York: Columbia University Press, 1967),250. 
239
Ibid,250. 

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formation of a strengthened Basmachi force. One of the first attenders, who were the 
liberal leaders of Kokand collapsed government, was Mustafa Chokai. He had been 
the leader of Kokand government and became the advocate to Basmachi uprisings. 
After he fled to Europe from the Red Army, he continued his struggle against the 
Soviets in Europe. The second group, giving their support to Basmachis, was the 
socialist leaders, for example Zeki Velidi Togan was one of the best representatives 
of that group. Togan had aims of uniting Socialists and non-socialists under one 
single union called as the National Union of Turkistan. As the third group, the 
conservative class of Bukhara, depended on Emir Alim Khan, also attended 
Basmachi revolts.
240
Especially Emir Alim sent his loyal commanders to the Soviet 
controlled regions to conduct the war against the Red Army. When the Soviet troops 
invaded ancient city, Bukhara, the city was exposed to huge destruction by the Red 
Army. The madrasas were destroyed and the valuable manuscripts in libraries were 
set fire.
241
Thus, the Soviets destroyed the remnants of the ancient culture. Emir 
Alim fled to eastern Bukhara and founded his headquarters in Dushanbe. Here, he 
organized the Basmachi groups, depended on him, and directed the war remotely 
until March 1921; after that time he passed to Afghanistan.
242
The Emir’s leave for 
Afghanistan changed the progress of the Basmachi struggle, because the struggle 
firstly seemed like a movement led by the Emir, so this prevented the attendance and 
support of liberal elite. After Alim Khan left for Afghanistan (from eastern Bukhara), 
the movement began attracting Jadid support.
243
“The rebellion was becoming a 
refuge for all who had been victims of Soviet repression. Moreover, the rebels took 
240
Caroe, Olaf,