fairway, fervej
). The fairway is bordered by rough (
rough, raf,
slang terms
rafuša, ráfek, rafík, rafíček
or
zelí
,
the latter meaning ‘cabbage’ in Czech). As the golf
course has typically 18 holes, its first half is called the front nine (
první devítka
) and the
second one back nine (
druhá devítka
). There are different types of holes, such as dogleg
(
dogleg
, coll.
zatáčka,
‘curve’,
rohlík,
‘roll’,
jamka do rohlíku,
‘roll-shaped hole’), i.e.
one whose fairway bends, cape hole (
cape hole
), blind hole (
slepá jamka
), par-four
(hole) (
čtyřpar, čtyřparová jamka, čtyřpárovka
), etc. The player has to be careful not to
get “out (of bounds)” (
out, aut, mimo
hřiště
) and they must avoid all kinds of hazard
(
překážka
), such as bunker or sand trap (
bunker, bankr,
písečná překážka, písková
překážka,
slang
písek
‘sand’
, pískoviště
‘sand pit’
, pískovna
‘sand quarry’
, pláž
‘beach’
,
Florida, poušť
‘desert’), pot bunker (
pot bunker, krater
‘crater’), grass bunker (
travnatý
bunker/bankr
), or water hazard (
vodní překážka
, slang
voda
‘water’
, vasr
), casual water
(
náhodná voda
), and finally watch out for the break (
break, zalomení, sklon
(
greenu
)).
The game is played with a ball (
míček
,
balón, balónek,
slang
kulička,
‘marble’)
and a golf club (
golfová hůl,
slang
palička
‘mallet’
, rákoska
‘cane’
, tyčka
‘pole’) which
features a shaft (
shaft, násada
), loft (
loft. úhel
), head (
hlava
) and sweetspot or
sweetzone (
sweetspot, sweetzóna
) and is held using different types of grip (
grip,
držení
), such as baseball grip (
baseballové držení
), or cross-handed grip (
obrácené
držení
). There are different types of clubs (according to the material, function,
properties, etc.), namely (a) woods (
dřevo
), subdivided into drivers (
drajvr,
slang
doga,
’Great Dane’,
kladivo, ‘
hammer’) and fairway woods (
fairway wood, fairwayové
dřevo
), (b) irons (
iron, železo
, slang
kov
‘metal’), subdivided into wedges (
wedge
,
večka,
slang
véčko
‘letter V’
, veka
‘French loaf’
, Vendula
), e.g. the approach wedge
(
approach wedge
), gap wedge (
gap wedge
), sand wedge (
sand wedge
), pitching wedge
(
pitching wedge, pičinkvečka
, slang
péčko
‘letter P’) or lob wedge (
lob wedge
), then
putters (
putter, patr
), e.g. belly putter (
bely patr
), and also the blade (
blade, žiletka
), and
(c) hybrids (
hybrid
). The golf set (
golfový set, sada
) made up of fourteen clubs and a
ball retriever (
lovítko míčků, lovítko, patnáctá hůl
) is kept in a bag (
bag, bágl, vak
). The
golfer also needs a tee (
týčko, kolíček
) and a ball marker (
markovátko
). The bag is
carried for the golfer by a caddy or caddie (
caddy, kedy, nosič
, slang
kedík
, tahač
‘tractor’) and for greater comfort and speed they may use a golf buggy or cart (
buggy,
bugina, golfový vozík, golfové auto
).
Another rich field of terms is that of hole scores and shots (see Table 3). The
standard score for a hole is called par (
par, norma
), and if the score is not “even par” (
v
Sports Terminology as a Source of Synonymy
175
paru
; slang
párek
‘pair’), it is either over par (
nad par, nad normu
) or under par (
pod
par, pod normu
). Holes played one or more strokes over par are a bogey (
bogey, bogy
,
slang
bogýčko, bogyna, bugyna
‘beach buggy’
, bugy
; +1) and a double bogey (
double
bogey, dabl
; +2). Conversely, holes played one or more strokes under par are a birdie
(
birdie, berdý
, slang
berdík, Berďouš, ptáček
‘birdie’
, pták
‘bird’; -1), eagle (
eagle
,
ígl
,
slang
orel
‘eagle’
, iglů
; -2), double eagle or albatross (
albatros
; -3), and condor
(
kondor
; -4). An amateur golfer’s potential scoring ability is called handicap or HCP
(
handicap, hendikep, hcp,
slang
hendík
). Shots are called according to where and how
they are played, e.g. drive (
drive,
drajv, úder z odpaliště
), approach (shot) (
approach,
eprouč
,
přihrávka, přibližovací rána
), bunker shot (
bankršot
), putt (
pat
), ace (
eso
) or
hole-in-one (
hole-in-one
,
houlin,
slang
houlinka,
houláč, dátin
), draw (
draw, dró
čko
),
chip (
čip
), pitch (
pič
), punch (
panč
), lay-up (
layup, pozice
), slice (
slajs, šlajs
), banana
ball (
banán
), fade (
fejd
), bite (
bite, zakousnutí
), flop (shot) (
flop shot, lob
), flier (shot)
(
flier, flajr
), hook (
hook, huk
), short game (shots) (
krátká hra
), long game (
dlouhá hra
),
gimme (
darovaný pat, darovaná rána, darovaná hra
), mulligan (
maligan
), etc. A badly
hit ball results in a poor shot, such as a shank (
shank, socket
, slang
soketka, sokol
‘falcon’), top (
top,
coll.
topinka
‘toast’), or fat (
fat, krtek,
‘mole’), producing a divot
(
drn,
řízek
, ‘cutting’).
Golf play comes in different forms, e.g. match play (
hra na jamky, jamkovka,
jamková hra
), stroke play (
hra na rány
), stableford (
stableford, hra na body
), foursome
(
forsom,
čtyřhra
), best ball (
best ball
). In a multiple round stroke play tournament, the
golfer has to make the cut (
kat
) to participate in the next round(s).
The 100 English golf terms are matched by 163 Czech equivalents. Of these 163
expressions, 98 are Anglicisms (80 loanwords and 18 calques), 9 are hybrid expressions
and the rest, 56 terms, are vernacular (see Table 4 below). Compared to the 100 English
terms, the Czech golf sample is larger by 63.0 per cent, and the 63 surplus equivalents
are interpreted as synonyms.
5. Discussion of results
Analysis of the English-Czech football, tennis and golf terminology samples deals both
with individual samples and their mutual contrast. Comparison of the findings in all
three samples shows that they can be meaningfully correlated with the history of these
sports in the Czech Republic: football with the longest history, followed by tennis,
while golf is a relatively new sport (see the respective sections). All this is in lockstep
with the status of the sports. Football is, beyond doubt, a mass sport, appearing on TV
literally every day. Tennis less so, but thanks to Czech top-ranking tennis players,
including Wimbledon winners, and the Davis Cup, it is presented on TV relatively
often. Czech golf, by contrast, has no players of international renown, there are not so
many golf courses in the country and so, being still a comparatively elitist sport, it is
only rarely aired on TV.
This, we believe, is reflected in the extent to which the respective terminologies
adopted from English have become assimilated and vernacularized in Czech. As can be
176
Alicante Journal of English Studies
inferred from Table 4, the two telltale indicators of the development and
vernacularization of terminology is the proportion of Anglicisms to vernacular terms
and the total number of Czech equivalents per 100 English terms in each sample. The
three samples contain 246 Anglicisms and 280 vernacular terms altogether. The hybrid
terms (24 items) which, for simplicity’s sake, are included neither in Anglicisms, nor
vernacular terms are too few to play any role and are counted only when the total size of
the English and the Czech sample is compared. It is assumed that when the new sport is
introduced the terminology will be heavily dependent on English (in the form of both
loanwords and calques) and only gradually, as the sport starts to live its own life in the
Czech context, will more vernacular terms find their way into the terminology. Some of
the Anglicisms will become firmly rooted, but in many cases Czech terms will take over
and become the norm. As suggested above, the exact details of the process, are
influenced by the duration of the sport’s presence and the growing numbers of speakers
who participate in or talk about it.
Table 4 shows that the set of Czech football equivalents includes the lowest
number of Anglicisms of the three samples, 70, and the largest amount of vernacular
terms, 133, i.e. in terms of percentage it has 34.5 per cent of Anglicisms to 65.5 per cent
of vernacular terms (not counting hybrids). The Czech tennis sample comprises 78
Anglicisms and 91 vernacular terms, i.e. 46.2 per cent of Anglicisms to 53.8 per cent of
vernacular terms. The golf sample includes 98 Anglicisms and 56 vernacular terms, i.e.
63.6 per cent to 36.4 per cent. The difference between football and golf is particularly
conspicuous; the proportion of Anglicisms to vernacular terms in these sports is
practically the reverse, with the percentage of Anglicisms in golf close to double the
size of the vernacular group. The difference between tennis and football and tennis and
golf is less pronounced. If we accept that loanwords are an even more telling sign of
dependence on English than calques – Furiassi et al. (2012: 6) describe loanwords as
direct, calques as indirect Anglicisms – and look at the incidence of English loanwords
in the sample, the differences between the sports become even more prominent. Our
focus on loanwords stems from the fact that loanwords manifestly preserve the form of
the original and its semantics (both at least to some extent), while calques are words of
the recipient language that assume another meaning according to the foreign model. In
fact, of the total of 150 English loanwords in the three samples, the 25 football
loanwords account for only 16.7 per cent, 45 tennis loanwords for 30.0 per cent and 80
golf loanwords for 53.3 per cent (more than three times compared to football).
Inasmuch as the aim of the paper is to examine why sports terminology should
be a source of synonymy, it is important to note how much the size of each Czech
sample differs from the respective English sample of 100 items. In aggregate, the
difference between the 550 recorded Czech equivalents and the 300 original English
sample terms is 250 items, i.e. an 83.3 per cent increase. It means that in 83.3 per cent
of cases the English term had on average more than one equivalent. The findings also
suggest that the lower the number of loanword Anglicisms in the Czech sample, the
larger the total number of items in the sample. Thus, the football sample has the highest
number of equivalents but the fewest number of loanwords (25 in 210). By contrast, the
Sports Terminology as a Source of Synonymy
177
golf sample with the largest number of loanwords is characterized by the smallest
amount of equivalents (80 in 163). The sample of Czech tennis terms includes 45
loanwords in the total of 177 equivalents, which is half way between the other two.
It also follows from the findings presented in Table 4 that every English term
had on average 2.1 Czech equivalents in football, 1.77 equivalents in tennis and only
1.63 in golf. However, the exact distribution of Czech equivalents per English term in
the football, tennis and golf samples is recorded in Tables 5, 6 and 7 respectively.
The
focus of the following analysis is on the two sports which represent opposite extremes,
football and golf, since the tennis sample is again positioned midway between them on
the continuum and so is of less interest. A detailed analysis of the Czech football
equivalents, the most numerous sample of the three, reveals that 39 terms of the English
football sample have only one Czech equivalent, 34 English terms have 2 equivalents,
15 English terms have 3 equivalents, 7 English terms had 4 equivalents, 5 English terms
have 5 to 7 equivalents (see Table 5). In terms of percentages, 39.0 per cent (slightly
more than one third) of the English terms had one equivalent, 34.0 per cent (one third)
of the English terms had two equivalents, and 27.0 per cent had had three and more
Czech equivalents.
The findings also show that football and golf markedly differ not only in how
many of their English terms have one, two or more Czech equivalents (see Table 6) but
also in the type of these equivalents. In the case of the 39 English football terms with a
single equivalent, the equivalents include 22 vernacular terms (
boot
–
kopačka, caution
–
napomenutí, set piece
–
standardní situace
, etc.), 14 lexical calques, i.e. translations
by Czech words, 2 hybrid expressions (combining English loanwords
gól
–
goal
and
penaltový
–
penalty
with Czech words), and only one equivalent,
centr
, which can be
considered a loanword (and at the same time a good candidate for a pseudo-Anglicism).
Centr
corresponds to the English term “cross”, a pass towards the centre of the pitch;
this or the fact that the receiver of the pass is the centre forward
(or
centr
in Czech) may
have given it its name. Anyway, as far as football is concerned, if the English term has
only one equivalent it turns out to be almost invariably a vernacular expression (or a
Czech-based lexical calque), not a loanword. We may hypothesize then that if the
English term has a vernacular equivalent right from the beginning, this seems to make
the development of more equivalents unnecessary.
A different situation obtains with the remaining 61 English terms that have two
and more equivalents. Equivalents of the English football terms with two and three
equivalents (34 and 15 terms respectively) include 21, i.e. most of the English
loanwords in the Czech sample (
gól, fotbal, mač, ofsajd, bek
, etc.), then 21 calques
(
return match
›
odvetný zápas, penalty area
›
pokutové území, sweeper
›
zameta
č, wing
›
křídlo
, etc.) and two hybrids. In sets of two equivalents there are 25 pairs including an
Anglicism of which only 3 do not adhere to the Anglicism-vernacular pattern; in sets of
three equivalents, thirteen contain an Anglicism and only two do not exhibit the
Anglicism-vernacular-vernacular pattern. Finally, the group of 12 English terms with
sets of 4 to 7 equivalents includes eight terms with Anglicisms (3 loanwords, 10 calques
and 3 hybrids; typically the pattern is one Anglicism-vernacular equivalents), and just
178
Alicante Journal of English Studies
four English terms have only vernacular equivalents (
míč, housle, hrot, nastavení doby
hry
). All in all, the multiple equivalents of English football terms are in accordance with
the hypothesized progress of terminology development: starting with an Anglicism
which, in the course of time, is supplemented by one of more vernacular expressions.
The Anglicism acts as a stimulus activating the process of vernacularization. Thus, the
rise of synonyms is typically triggered by borrowing accompanied and followed by the
use of vernacular terms in increasing measure. This de-anglicizing tendency ties in with
the inverse proportion between the number of loanwords and the total of equivalents in
the samples pointed out in the preceding paragraph.
The same kind of analysis was applied to the set of equivalents with the highest
number of Anglicisms, the golf sample of equivalents. Compared to the other two
samples (tennis, and especially football), Czech golf terminology is marked by the
lowest degree of de-anglicization, which is signalled not only by the largest number of
Anglicisms (and the smallest total of equivalents) in the sample, but also by different
patterns of equivalent distribution compared to football (see Table 7). More than half of
the English terms (51) have only one Czech equivalent, of which 27 are loanwords
(
birdie, bogey, fairway,
etc.), 16 are calques (e.g.,
dřevo, kondonr, banán
,
slepá jamka
),
3 hybrids (
travnatý bankr
) and only 5 are vernacular terms (e.g.
jamka, hůl, překážka
),
which is in stark contrast to the composition of single equivalents in football. Of the 37
English golf terms with two equivalents, 23 have equivalents in keeping with the
hypothesized terminology development pattern, i.e. Anglicism
→
vernacular term
expansion, in 13 cases both equivalents are Anglicisms (loanword + loanword, e.g.
draw-dró
čko, wedge-večka
, or loanword + hybrid, e.g.
links-
linksové hřiště, sweetspot-
sweetzón
a) and in just one case the English term has two vernacular equivalents (
divot
-
drn, řízek
). In the remaining 12 English golf terms with three and four equivalents, the
pattern Anglicism + 3–4 vernacular terms appears in eight cases. In two cases the
equivalents of an English term included two loanwords (
te
e, týčko, odpaliště
;
buggy,
bugina, vozík, auto
) and only two English terms had vernacular expressions as the only
equivalents (
hra na jamku, jamková hra, jamkovka, míček, balon, balónek
). Thus, the
expected course of terminology development was confirmed in 31 of 49 English golf
terms with two to four equivalents.
Naturally, the data also reveal that there are alternatives to the Anglicism-
vernacular pattern of equivalents. Thus the English term may have only one equivalent
(Anglicism or vernacular word), or the multiple Czech equivalents may include only
Anglicisms (
sweetspot, sweetzóna
) or only vernacular expressions, although such cases
are relatively infrequent (e.g. the equivalents of the English terms
pitch, ball, referee,
goal post, crossbar, stocking, offence, added time, nutmeg, striker, bounce, side-line,
match play,
or
divot
). Obviously, many of the Czech words serving as equivalents had
existed in the language independently of the sport and so could be easily recycled.
Anglicisms in Czech terminologies appear to stimulate the process of
vernacularization resulting in terminological variants typically with different stylistic
values. Sometimes the vernacular term acquires official status and relegates the
Anglicism to colloquial use, sometimes it is the other way around (
fotbal
as an official
Sports Terminology as a Source of Synonymy
179
term replacing the otherwise established
kopaná
). The degree of de-anglicization of
Czech terminologies based on English models and the amount of terms are quite clearly
dependent on such circumstances as the length of time the sport has been around, its
popularity and affordability influencing sports participation, etc. Hence the terminology
of football, the most popular sport of the three, has become the most de-anglisized and
richest of the three. By contrast, the Czech terminology of golf, the most elitist sport
among the three, is the least vernacularized and has the narrowest range of terms.
The difference between a highly anglicized terminology and a highly de-
anglicized one, represented by golf and football respectively, shows even in cases where
the English term has only one equivalent. Single equivalents of English football terms
are predominantly vernacular expressions, while 46 of 51 single equivalents of English
golf terms are Anglicisms. The tentative explanation is that the popular demand to de-
anglicize golf terminology is relatively low, while with football, which has become a
national pastime in a nation of bar room football experts and is heavily promoted by the
media, the readiness to vernacularize its terminology is much stronger. Also, this
tendency will not be evenly paced, being subject to a whole range of factors both
external (language variation, the need for stylistic diversification, etc.) and internal
(availability of vernacular words and word-formation patterns).
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