Many changes have taken place in the bends and twists of these rivers. I have not shown
these details on the maps as there is no way of knowing how they appeared then. Hence,
only the main branches of these rivers are shown on our maps, and without all the twists
and turns which must undoubtedly have existed.
This then was how Iraq stood politically and geographically, when the Caliph launched
Khalid on it. It was a land occupied by Persians and Arabs, and ruled by the Persian
court. The Empire had begun to decline politically, but it would be wrong to imagine that
it had declined militarily. The military effectiveness of an empire may remain at a high
level for decades after its political disintegration has set in. And so it was with the
Persians in the year 633.
The Persian army, including its Arab auxiliaries, was the most formidable and most
efficient military machine of the time. Led by experienced and dedicated veterans, it was
a proud, sophisticated and well?tried force which gloried in its past achievements and its
present might. The Persian soldier was the best-equipped warrior of his day. He wore a
coat of mail or a breast-plate; on his head rested a helmet of either chain mail or beaten
metal; his forearms were covered by metal sleeves, and his legs, were protected by
greaves (like leg-guards covering the front part of the leg). He carried a spear, lance or
javelin, a sword, and either an axe or an iron mace (the latter was a favourite and much-
feared Persian weapon). He also carried one or two bows with 30 arrows and two spare
bowstrings hanging from his helmet.
2
Thus, powerfully equipped and armed was the
Persian soldier. But, and this was inevitable, he lacked mobility. In the general, set-piece
battle he acknowledged no equals; and in this he was right, until Khalid's lightly armed
and fast-moving riders came along.
It all started with Muthanna bin Harithah. A tiger of a man who later died of wounds
suffered in battle with the Persians, Muthanna was a chief of the tribe of Bani Bakr,
which inhabited the north-eastern part of the Arabian peninsula and southern Iraq. It is
not certain that Muthanna had become a Muslim during the time of the Prophet. He
probably had, because a delegation from the Bani Bakr had travelled to Madinah during
the Year of Delegations and had accepted Islam at the hands of the Prophet. But there is
no actual record of Muthanna's conversion.
1.
Ibn Rusta: pp. 94-5. At Mazar (Azeir) today only a small river flows into the Tigris
from the west-certainly too small to form the bed of the old Tigris. The old bed has
probably silted up and ceased to be discernible.
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