International Criminal Law
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aircraft ‘in flight’ is wider in the 1970 Hague Convention than in the 1963 Tokyo
Convention, since its temporal application encompasses the period of time when all
external doors are closed following embarkation until the moment any such door is
opened for disembarkation.
45
The offence of aircraft hijacking under the 1970 Hague
Convention is consummated by a person who:
(a) unlawfully, by force or threat thereof, or by any other form of intimidation, seizes,
or exercises control of [an] aircraft, or attempts to perform any such act; or
b)
is an accomplice of a person who performs or attempts to perform any such act.
The phrase ‘any other form of intimidation’ seems to be superfluous, since there can
be no other form of unlawfully taking over an aircraft without the use or threat of
force,
46
so it seems as though the drafters intended to cover every possible future
situation, even if it was unknown to them at the time. It is possible, nonetheless, that
seizure be perpetrated without use of force, through bribery or collaboration with the
aircraft’s pilots or cabin crew. An Australian proposal to include such non-forceful
seizure in the 1970 Hague Convention was rejected by the Legal Committee of the
International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) by 25:7. Shubber argued in 1973
that a reasonable interpretation, compatible with the aim and purpose of the
Convention requires a wide construction, one which would define non-forceful seizure
as hijacking.
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This inference seems to be arbitrary, especially in light of its previous
rejection and the highly specialised nature of this and all other terrorist conventions,
which cannot, accordingly, allow any room for interpretations of this kind.
For the purposes of the Hague Convention, the seizure must originate and be
perpetrated by the principal from within the aircraft. Likewise, an accomplice falls
within the ambit of the Convention only if such person provides assistance while on
board the aircraft in flight. Accomplices whose participation in the offence takes
place outside the aircraft are subject only to local criminal jurisdiction.
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To meet the
growing refusal of certain recalcitrant States to counter the aforementioned terrorist
offences, the delegates to the 1978 Bonn Economic Summit issued a Joint Statement
whereby they agreed to cease all incoming and outgoing flights to those countries
that refused to extradite or prosecute hijackers and/or did not return illegally seized
aircraft. It is worth noting that a joint US-Canadian draft sanctions treaty to the same
effect was rejected by the Legal Committee of the ICAO in 1972.
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The Bonn
Declaration was subsequently enforced against Iran, Afghanistan and later Libya.
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A very specific form of unlawful aircraft seizure is that of ‘air piracy’, as defined
under Art 15 of the 1958 Geneva Convention on the High Seas
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and Art 101 of the
1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
52
—although the term is also
45
1970 Hague Convention, Art 3(1).
46
S Shubber, ‘Aircraft Hijacking under the Hague Convention 1970—A New Regime?’, 22
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