Chapter 13: The International Criminal Tribunals for Yugoslavia and Rwanda 361
consistently argued that it could nonetheless provide evidential assistance in proving
the intent of the authors.
138
Although the case law of the Permanent Court of International Justice, as did
also the early jurisprudence of the ICJ, suggested that membership of a specific group
was a question of fact,
139
the
Akayesu
tribunal assessed such membership solely on
subjective criteria, in accordance with recent developments in human rights law.
140
This approach is desirable in the construction of membership with regard to genocide,
since each specific culture and society maintains its own distinct perception of
membership to particular groups, which is not easily visible to outside observers,
and in the case of Rwanda, there was an even more compelling reason, since the
Tutsi did not fit into any of the four enumerated groups, sharing as they did the
same language, culture and race as the Hutus.
141
However, this approach does not
necessarily conform to the travaux of the 1948 Genocide Convention, not with
subsequent ICTY/ICTR judgments. The Trial Chamber in the
Akayesu
case, based
on its aforementioned approach, resorted to an interpretation of particular
membership on the basis of the preparatory work of the 1948 Genocide Convention,
which intended to ensure the protection of only ‘stable’ groups.
142
This interpretation
was supported in
Rutaganda,
decided
obiter dicta,
but was not directly referred to in
either
Kayishema, Ruzindana
or
Jelisic
.
143
The
Krstic
judgment actually disagreed
altogether, arguing that the Genocide Convention does not protect all types of human
groups, its application being confined solely to national, ethnical, racial or religious
groups.
144
It is widely agreed, however, that the perception of a group in the mind of
the perpetrators may be effected through either negative (that is, lack of certain
characteristics) or positive criteria (that is, accumulation of certain characteristics).
145
The
dolus specialis
of genocide necessitates that the intention to commit this crime
be formed prior to the execution of genocidal acts, although the individual offences
themselves do not require any such premeditation.
146
The execution of genocide
involves two levels of intent: that of the criminal enterprise as a collectivity and that
of the participating individuals. In such cases of joint participation, the intent to
commit genocide must be discernible in the criminal act itself, apart from the intent
138
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