13.3.2 Violations of the laws or customs of war in internal conflicts
Although the title of Art 3 of the ICTY Statute, ‘Violations of the laws or customs of
war’ suggests that the intention of its drafters was to limit this provision to the 1907
Hague Convention IV and the Regulations annexed to it, the Appeals Chamber in the
Tadic
jurisdiction decision held that Art 3 in fact covers all violations of international
humanitarian law other than grave breaches. This therefore includes, besides the 1907
Hague Convention, those portions of the 1949 Geneva Conventions other than their
grave breaches provisions, violations of commonArt 3 of the four Geneva Conventions,
as well as other customary law applicable to internal conflicts, and violations contained
in agreements entered into by the parties to the conflict.
74
The implication of this
construction of Art 3 of the ICTY Statute, which is nonetheless consistent with relevant
Security Council deliberations, has been the recognition for the first time by an
international judicial institution of individual criminal responsibility for offences
committed in the context of non-international armed conflicts.
The Appeals Chamber did not hesitate to assert that violations of common Art 3
of the 1949 Geneva Conventions entail individual criminal responsibility under
customary international law.
75
It is true, as categorically noted by the ICJ, that the
norms prescribed in common Art 3 constitute minimum considerations of humanity.
76
Similarly, the ICTY Appeals Chamber found that customary international law
prohibited all attacks against civilian objects and persons no longer taking part in
hostilities, as well as certain means and methods of warfare applicable to internal
armed conflicts.
77
Although the international community’s concern over such issues
seemingly violates the rule against interference in the domestic affairs of States, it is
evident that a State sovereignty oriented approach has been gradually supplanted
by a human being oriented approach.
78
Notwithstanding this universal character of
international humanitarian norms governing internal conflicts, it seems unlikely
that there ever existed a customary rule entailing the penalisation of these norms
under international law, especially since both common Art 3 and the 1977 Protocol
II were drafted purposively, that is, as minimum humanitarian considerations, whose
criminal aspects and prosecution would be determined exclusively at a domestic
level.
79
In fact, the drafting history of the 1949 Geneva Conventions demonstrates
that ICRC proposals to apply the Conventions to non-international armed conflicts
were almost unanimously rejected by participating delegates. The ICRC then
74
Tadic
appeals jurisdiction decision (2 October 1995), paras 87, 89.
75
Ibid,
para 134.
76
Nicaragua v USA,
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Merits) (1986) ICJ
Reports 14, para 218.
77
Tadic
appeals jurisdiction decision (2 October 1995), para 127.
78
Ibid,
para 97.
79
The view common among jurists is that by 1994 there was no such consensus at the interstate level.
See D Plattner, ‘The Penal Repression of Violations of International Humanitarian Law Applicable in
Non-International Armed Conflicts’, 20
IRRC
(1990), 414; T Meron, The Case for War Crimes Trials in
Yugoslavia’ (1993 Summer)
Foreign Affairs,
124, p 128; ‘Letter dated 24 May 1994 from the Secretary
General to the President of the Security Council’, UN Doc S/1994/674 (1994), para 52, which reads: ‘It
must be observed that the violations of the law or customs of war…are offences when committed in
international, but not in internal armed conflicts’, in JV Mayfield, ‘The Prosecution of War Crimes and
Respect for Human Rights: Ethiopia’s Balancing Act’, 9
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