Iacobus Leodiensis [Iacobus de Montibus, Iacobus de Oudenaerde]

IV. Depictions

1. Instruments.

The more historically remote a music culture is from the present time, the more difficult it is to assemble evidence. In non-Western cultures and in earlier periods of European culture musical notation was rare and covered only a select repertory. Scholars dealing with pre-history, ancient and medieval cultures have therefore long resorted to the study of pictures and texts. In the 19th century, with positivism prevailing, depictions of musical instruments were taken prima facie, but in the first quarter of the 20th-century attitudes began to change.

How much we can trust a picture over organological detail and the accuracy of its representation of performance depends on many factors, of which the most obvious is the picture's purpose. If its aim is the naturalistic representation of reality, if it wants to testify to a patron's musical taste and glorify his sponsorship, accuracy will be a major concern and the image may be suitable for organological analysis. A second factor is the stylistic environment, in art-historical terms. While Graeco-Roman art and the Renaissance seek the study and imitation of nature, the Middle Ages and the late 19th century set different priorities. A third point is the technical interest in creating likeness of image and object, for example in matters of perspective, colour or material – an endeavour typical for the painters of still lives, for example. But if the content is emblematic or symbolical, if it crosses the borders of time and place, the artist may content himself with a few identifiers of shape or handling of an instrument.

In all contexts, organological eclecticism seems to be the norm among artists; they may pay attention to the correct handling of instruments but not to the grouping of players or overall proportions; they may be faithful to the combination of participants but not to the reaction of the audience, to details of the instrument or to the musical notation. Furthermore, the artistic medium may place limit upon accuracy. A thick brush would not allow the drawing of details necessary for the depiction of a Boehm clarinet or a mouth organ; the harp is unsuitable for representation in a clay sculpture.

Terminological considerations may be of crucial importance. The instrument in a picture (fig.7) may be determined in modern language as a triangular psaltery; following the organological terminology of Sachs and Hornbostel it may be called a box zither, in the class of chordophones; or the caption ‘psalterium decacordum’ (although it shows 20 strings) may be followed linking it to the scientific language of the contemporary medieval scholar; it can be called a ‘rotte’, as Herrad of Landsberg probably did in her mother tongue.

It is clear, then, that pictures of instruments yield the most reliable conclusions if the context is thoroughly explored and as much comparative material as possible (such as texts and other pictures) is assembled. In pre-historic and non-literate cultures, pictorial and archaeological evidence are the only source for the reconstruction of the past. In literate cultures of antiquity, in East and West, texts may join the two other sources; the three together (with pictures predominant) permit an amazingly detailed insight into the musical life of certain social strata, as can easily be gathered from the pertinent sections in a number of articles in this dictionary. This remains true for the Eastern Middle Ages too, but not for Western Europe, where literate culture almost disappeared. In the last 500 years, extant instruments have slowly replaced other types of evidence and have relegated pictorial sources to a secondary role.

2. Scores.

The visual arts were of special importance to the invention of music engraving. The technique goes back to the image-motets of the late 16th-century Netherlands inspired by panel paintings with painted music leaves (Seiffert, F1918–19; Hammerstein, F1991). Musical notation in paintings usually poses fewer problems of interpretation than musical instruments and performance, because the line between the legible and the illegible is clear. If the artist merely wants to indicate that composed and written music is intended, a simile is sufficient. But if the musical text provides the key to an understanding of the picture, it will be given as precisely as necessary for identification.

3. Performance.

What has been said about organological analysis of pictures also applies in some degree to the study of performing practice. If the representation of musical execution is supposed to give details of handling, the reliability may be treacherous, because the artist is not generally also a musician, and, as the precise significance of (for example) a violinist's hand position will not be plain to him or her, will be likely to err. If the emphasis is on gesture, body movement, and physical expression, a good deal of ‘truthfulness’ can be expected. The visual aspects of music-making, the affect by which the musician is driven, and the effects music exerts on audiences are attractive features for artists whose goal it is to visualize music as a unique art form. Standard formations of musical ensembles such as the capella alta for dance music in the Renaissance or a string quartet are most likely to be captured unchanged, but where ensembles are large or not closely defined by the genre, non-musical considerations or technical limitation come into play (fig.3). After all, the impression of completeness in a caricature of a symphony orchestra or African ensemble of drummers and dancers is more relevant to the viewer than precise numbers or correct positioning. Aesthetic considerations of space and distribution of pictorial elements and colours may well take precedence over accuracy as far as aspects of performance are concerned. Finally there is an enormous mass of images where social messages or emblematic contents drastically overrule naturalistic depiction or where social factors take precedence over the hierarchy among musicians or where combinations of players stand for spiritual concepts rather than actual performance.

4. Dance.

A coherent theory of dance iconography, in particular of the visualization of rhythm, is still lacking (Seebass, E1991). But much of what has been said about the iconography of music applies equally to dance. A fundamental difference is that dance is visible; the primary element does not have to be translated. This gives the dance picture a proximity to the performance that is not open to the music picture.

The specific nature of dance has a direct impact on its visualization. Dance types based on improvised kinetic flow or on individualized expression resist depiction since their main feature is a process in time (fig.8). By contrast, dance types consisting of a series of positions lend themselves easily to depiction, since each position captures the essence of the meaning of the choreutic moment. Such dances are found in the courtly milieu in Asia and in the European ballet. Some Asian dance cultures – probably as a result of the cultivation of dance drama – have equated dance positions with emotions and thoughts. The most prominent example is the Indian rasa system, precisely described emotions formalized in positions of the body (or its parts) and representable through the visual arts, or actualized in dance. Here, too, as in the cases of the emblematic use of musical instruments, the term figura is useful. Artist and dancer can gain their vision of this figura in meditation and there is no fundamental difference whether it is ultimately carved into a stone relief, acted out in dancing or only through words. The dancing Śiva is experienced both as an act and an image.

Whenever the planometric design of a complete dance (Greek orchēsis) results in an image or a letter, it can obtain at least the quality of an emblem, if not a figura. Sometimes it remains observable as a groove in the ice or in the sand (e.g. an Indian snake dance) sometimes it leaves no trace on the ground but the painter or engraver can represent it as a summary (e.g. in engravings of Baroque dance festivities). Otherwise the iconographer will have to rely on the secondary elements as identifiers, such as the age and sex of participants, the headdress, the costume and specific paraphernalia (such as flowers or weapons).

Iconography

BIBLIOGRAPHY

a: bibliographies

b: method and history

c: collected works, series

d: catalogues

e: european art

f: instruments, notation and performance (europe)

g: folk music

h: non-european art

i: instruments and performance (outside europe)

j: the musical instrument as an image

k: contextual sources (performance sites)

l: portraits

m: music and the visual arts

For further bibliography see Musicology.

based on MGG2 (vi, 1319–43), by permission of Bärenreiter

Iconography: Bibliography

a: bibliographies

MGG2 (‘Musik und bildende Kunst’, R. Ketteler, J. Jewanski and L. Finscher; ‘Musikikonographie’, T. Seebass)

F. Crane: A Bibliography of the Iconography of Music (Iowa City, 1971)

Imago musicae (1984–) [annual bibl.]

Iconography: Bibliography

b: method and history

Grove6 (H.M. Brown)

E. Panofsky: ‘Iconography and Iconology: an Introduction to the Study of Renaissance Art’, Studies in Iconology (New York, 1939/R), 3–31

J. Białostocki: ‘Iconography and Iconology’, Encyclopedia of World Art (New York, 1963)

W. Korte: ‘Kunstgeschichte und Musikwissenschaft: eine vergessene musikhistorische Diskussion’, Festschrift Werner Hager, ed. G. Fiensch and M. Imdahl (Recklinghausen, 1966), 168–77

E. Winternitz: ‘The Iconology of Music: Potentials and Pitfalls’, Perspectives in Musicology, ed. B.S. Brook, E.O.D. Downes and S. Van Solkema (New York, 1972), 80–90

J.W. McKinnon: ‘Iconography’, Musicology in the 1980s: Boston 1981, 79–93

F. Guizzi: ‘Considerazioni preliminari sull'iconografia come fonte ausiliaria nella ricerca etnomusicologica’, RIM, xviii (1983), 87–101

R. Hammerstein: ‘Musik and bildende Kunst: zur Theorie und Geschichte ihrer Beziehungen’, Imago musicae, i (1984), 1–28

T. Seebass: ‘The Illustration of Music Theory in the Late Middle Ages: Some Thoughts on its Principles and a Few Examples’, Music Theory and its Sources: Antiquity and the Middle Ages: South Bend, IN, 1987, 197–234

M. Slobin: ‘Icons of Ethnicity: Pictorial Themes in Commercial Euro-American Music’, Imago musicae, v (1988), 129–43

F. Guizzi: ‘Visual Message and Music in Cultures with Oral Tradition’, Imago musicae, vii (1990), 7–23

B.C. Wade: Imaging Sound: an Ethnomusicological Study of Music, Art and Culture in Mughal India (Chicago, 1998)

Iconography: Bibliography

c: collected works, series

K. Andorfer and R. Epstein, eds.: Musica in nummis (Vienna, 1907)

W. von Zur Western: Musiktitel aus vier Jahrhunderten: Festschrift anlässlich des 75jährigen Bestehens der Firma C.G. Röder, Leipzig (Leipzig, 1921)

A.K. Porter: Romanesque Sculpture of the Pilgrimage Roads (Boston, 1923/R)

E. Bücken, ed.: Handbuch der Musikwissenschaft (Potsdam, 1928–34)

G. Kinsky, R. Haas and H. Schnoor: Geschichte der Musik in Bildern (Leipzig, 1929; Eng. trans., 1930)

E. Bücken, ed.: Die grossen Meister (Potsdam, 1932–)

M. Bernardi and A. della Corte: Gli strumenti musicali nei dipinti della Galleria degli Uffizi (Turin, 1952)

Musica Kalender (Kassel, 1954–)

Minzu Yinyue Yanjiusuo, ed.: Zhongguo yinyue shi cankao tupian [Illustrations for reference on Chinese music history] (Shanghai and Beijing, 1954–64)

J. Banach: Tematy muzyczne w plastyce polskiej (Kraków, 1956–62; Ger. trans., 1957–65)

D. Keresztury, J. Vécsey and Z. Falvy: A magyar zenetörténet képeskönyve [The history of Hungarian music in pictures] (Budapest, 1960)

H. Besseler, M. Schneider and W. Bachmann, eds.: Musikgeschichte in Bildern (Leipzig, 1961–89) [incl. M. Wegner: Griechenland, 1963; S. Martí: Alt-Amerika, 1970]

G.S. Fraenkel, ed.: Decorative Music Title Pages (New York, 1968)

F. Lesure, ed.: Iconographie musicale (Geneva, 1972–)

R. and U. Henning: Zeugnisse alter Musik: Graphik aus fünf Jahrhunderten (Herrsching, 1975)

R. Pečman, ed.: Hudba a výtvarné umění: Frýdek Místek 1977

T. Volek and S. Jareš: The History of Czech music in Pictures (Prague, 1977) [in Cz., Ger. and Eng.]

W. Salmen: Bilder zur Geschichte der Musik in Österreich (Innsbruck, 1979)

Liu Dongsheng and Yuan Quanyou, eds.: Zhongguo yinyue shi tujian [Pictorial guide to the history of Chinese music] (Beijing, 1988) [YYS publication]

B. Brumana and G. Ciliberti, eds.: Musica e immagine: tra iconografia e mondo dell'opera: studi in onore di Massimo Bogianckino (Florence, 1993)

Musikalische Ikonographie: Hamburg 1991 [HJbMw, xii (1994)]

F. Zannoni, ed.: Le immagini della musica: Rome 1994

P. Kuret, ed.: Glasba in likovna umetnost: Koncerti, Simpozij; Musik und bildende Kunst: Konzerte, Symposium: Ljubljana 1996 (Ljubljana, 1996)

Iconography: Bibliography

d: catalogues

M.F. Schneider: Alte Musik in der bildenden Kunst Basels (Basle, 1941)

M.F. Schneider: Musik der Neuzeit in der bildenden Kunst Basels (Basle, 1944)

L.B. Meyer: A History of Musical Instruments in Slides (Chicago, c1951)

A.G. Hess: Italian Renaissance Paintings with Musical Subjects: a Corpus of Such Works in American Collections (New York, 1955)

L. Vorreiter: ‘Musikikonographie des Altertums im Schrifttum 1850–1949 and 1950–1974’, AcM, xlvi (1974), 1–42

B. Galeyev: Muzïka i izobrazitel'noye iskusstvo: bibliograficheskii ukazatel'knig i statey na russkom yazïke 1917–74 [Music and the visual arts: a bibliography of books and articles in Russian, 1917–1974], ed. N.G. Pavlova (Moscow, 1976)

I. Hottois: L'iconographie musicale dans les manuscrits de la Bibliothèque royale Albert Ier (Brussels, 1982)

Musical Scenes in Japanese Arts: Catalogue of Musical Instruments in Pictures from the Heian to the Edo Period (Tokyo, 1984) [annual report of Kunitachi College of Music, v, in Jap.]

The Art of Music: American Paintings and Musical Instruments 1770–1910 (Clinton, NY, 1984) [exhibition catalogue]

H.M. Brown: ‘Catalogus: a Corpus of Trecento Pictures with Musical Subject Matter’, Imago musicae, i (1984), 189–243; ii (1985), 179–281; iii (1986), 103–87; v (1988), 167–243

P.M. Della Porta and E. Genovesi, eds.: Iconografia musicale in Umbria tra XII e XIV secolo, Assisi, 5–12 Sept 1984 (Assisi, 1984) [exhibition catalogue]

T. Seebass, ed.: Imago musicae (1984–)

P.M. Della Porta and others, eds.: Iconografia musicale in Umbria tra XII e XIV secolo, Assisi, Sept 1985 (Assisi, 1985) [exhibition catalogue]

T. Ford, ed.: RIdIM/RCMI Inventory of Music Iconography (New York, 1986–)

P.M. Della Porta and others, eds.: Iconografia musicale in Umbria nel XV secolo, Assisi, 1987 (Assisi, 1987) [exhibition catalogue]

U. Henning: Musica Maximiliana: die Musikgraphiken in den bibliophilen Unternehmungen Kaiser Maximilians I (Neu-Ulm, 1987)

M. Kyrova: European Musical Instruments: RIdIM – Prints and Drawings from the Iconographic Collections of the Haags Gemeentemuseum (Zug, 1987) [guide to microfiche collection]

F. Berti and D. Restani: Lo specchio della musica: iconografia musicale nella ceramica attica di Spina (Bologna, 1988)

E. Lagnier: Iconografia musicale in Valle d'Aosta (Rome, 1988)

J. Ballester i Gibert: ‘Retablos marianos tardomedievales con ángeles músicos procedentes del antiguo reino de Aragón: catálogo’, RdMc, xiii (1990), 123–201

J.J. Martín González and M.A. Virgili Blanquet: Las Edades del Hombre: la música en la iglesia de Castilla y León (Valladolid, 1991) [exhibition catalogue]

I.B. Magnus and B. Kjellström: Musikmotiv i Svensk kyrkokonst: Uppland fram till 1625/Musical Motifs in Swedish Church Art (Stockholm, 1993)

M. Carlone: Iconografia musicale nell'arte biellese, vercellese e valsesiana: un catalogo ragionato (Rome, 1995)

F. Gétreau, ed.: Musique – Images – Instruments (Paris, 1995–)

Iconography: Bibliography

e: european art

G. Kastner: Les danses des morts (Paris, 1852)

G. Kastner: Les sirènes (Paris, 1858)

E. Mâle: ‘Les arts libéraux dans la statuaire du Moyen Age’, Revue archéologique, 3rd ser., xvii (1891), 334–46

J. von Schlosser: ‘Giusto's Fresken in Padua und die Vorläufer der Stanza della Segnatura’, Jb der kunsthistorischen Sammlungen des allerhöchsten Kaiserhauses, new ser., xvii (1896), 13–100

A. Delatt: ‘La musique au tombeau dans l'antiquité’, Revue archéologique, 4th ser., xxi (1913), 318–32

L. Schrade: ‘Die Darstellung der Töne an den Kapitellen der Abteikirche zu Cluni: ein Beitrag zum Symbolismus in mittelalterlicher Kunst’, DVLG, vii (1929), 229–66

L. Castellani: ‘L'estasi di S. Cecilia di Raffaello’, Arte cristiana, xxiii (1935)

W. Gurlitt: ‘Die Musik in Raffaels Heiliger Caecilia’, JbMP 1938, 84–97

E. Reuter: Les représentations de la musique dans la sculpture romane en France (Paris, 1938)

L. Parigi: Musiche in pittura (Signa, 1939)

C. de Tolnay: ‘The Music of the Universe: Notes on a Painting by Bicci di Lorenzo’, Journal of the Walters Art Gallery, vi (1943), 83–104

M.-T. d'Alverny: ‘La Sagesse et ses sept filles: recherches sur les allégories de la Philosophie et des Arts libéraux du IXe au XII siècle’, Mélanges dédiés à la mémoire de Félix Grat, i (Paris, 1946), 245–78

K. Meyer: ‘The Eight Gregorian Modes on the Cluny Capitals’, Art Bulletin, xxxiv (1952), 75–94

E.E. Lowinsky: ‘The Music in St. Jerome's Study’, Art Bulletin, xli (1959), 298–301

G. Bandmann: Melancholie und Musik: ikonographische Studien (Cologne, 1960)

A.P. de Mirimonde: ‘Les sujets musicaux chez Vermeer de Delft’, Gazette des beaux-arts, 6th ser., lvii (1961), 29–52

H. Steger: David rex et propheta: König David als vorbildliche Verkörperung des Herrschers und Dichters im Mittelalter, nach Bilddarstellungen des achten bis zwölften Jahrhunderts (Nuremberg, 1961)

R. Hammerstein: Die Musik der Engel (Berne and Munich, 1962, 2/1990)

M.-T. d'Alverny: ‘Les muses et les sphères célestes’, Storia e letteratura, xciv (1964), ii, 7–19

A.P. de Mirimonde: ‘Les concerts des Muses chez les maîtres du nord’, Gazette des beaux-arts, lxiii (1964), 129–58

F. Lesure: Musica e società (Milan, 1966; Eng. trans., 1968, as Music and Art in Society)

E. Winternitz: Musical Instruments and their Symbolism in Western Art (New York, 1967, 2/1979)

D. Schuberth: Kaiserliche Liturgie: die Einbeziehung von Musikinstrumenten, insbesondere der Orgel, in den frühmittelalterlichen Gottesdienst (Göttingen, 1968)

E. Panofsky: Problems in Titian, mostly Iconographic (London, 1969)

K. Meyer-Baer: Music of the Spheres and the Dance of Death (Princeton, NJ, 1970)

A. Pilipczuk: ‘Ein musikalisches Kartenspiel aus dem letzten Drittel des 18. Jahrhunderts’, Jb der Hamburger Kunstsammlungen, xvi (1971), 119–46

T. Seebass: ‘Die Bedeutung des Utrechter Psalters für die Musikgeschichte’, Kunst-en muziekhistorische Bijdragen tot de bestudering van het Utrechts Psalterium (Utrecht, 1973), 33–48

T. Seebass: Musikdarstellung und Psalterillustration im früheren Mittelalter (Berne, 1973)

R. Hammerstein: Diabolus in musica: Studien zur Ikonographie der Musik im Mittelalter (Berne and Munich, 1974)

P.E. Carapezza: ‘Regina angelorum in musica picta: Walter Frye e il “Maitre au feuillage brodé”’, RIM, x (1975), 134–54

C. Cuttler: ‘Job – Music – Christ’, Bulletin [Institut Royal du Patrimoine Artistique], xv (1975), 86–94

P. Fischer: Music in Paintings of the Low Countries in the 16th and 17th Centuries (Amsterdam, 1975)

S. Wichmann: Carl Spitzweg, 1808-1885: Ständchen-, Serenaden und Straßensängerbilder (Starnberg, 1975)

A.P. de Mirimonde: L'iconographie musicale sous les rois Bourbons: la musique dans les arts plastiques (XVIIe–XVIIIe siècles) (Paris, 1975–7)

S. Jareš: ‘Traktát “Zrcadlo člověčieho spasenie” jako hudebně ikonografický pramen’ [The treatise “Speculum humanae salvationis” as a source for musical iconography], HV, xiii (1976), 81–5

H.C. Slim: The Prodigal Son at the Whores': Music, Art, and Drama (Irvine, CA, 1976)

A.M. Kettering: ‘Rembrandt's “Flute Player”: a Unique Treatment of Pastoral’, Simiolus, ix (1977), 19–44

R.D. Leppert: The Theme of Music in Flemish Paintings of the Seventeenth Century (Munich, 1977)

A.P. de Mirimonde: ‘Rubens et la musique’, Jaarboek van het Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten Antwerpen (1977), 97–197

C.J. Oja: ‘The Still-Life Paintings of William Michael Harnett (their Reflections upon Nineteenth-Century American Musical Culture)’, MQ, lxiii (1977), 505–23

J. Braun: ‘Musical Iconography in the Byzantine Manuscripts from the Greek patriarchate in Jerusalem and St. Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai: a Preliminary Report’, Tatzlil xviii/10 (1978), 90–95

B. Disertori: La musica nei quadri antichi (Trent, 1978)

P.C. Finney: ‘Orpheus – David: a Connection in Iconography between Greco-Roman Judaism and Early Christianity’, Journal of Jewish Art, v (1978), 6–15

R.D. Leppert: Arcadia at Versailles: Noble Amateur Musicians and their Musettes and Hurdy-Gurdies at the French Court (c. 1660–1789) – a Visual Study (Amsterdam, 1978)

A.P. Mirimonde: ‘Les vanités à personnages et à instruments de musique’, Gazette des beaux-arts, 6th ser., xcii (1978), 115–30; xciv (1979), 61–8

W.S. Sheard: ‘The Widener “Orpheus”: Attribution, Type, Invention’, Collaboration in Italian Renaissance Art, ed. W.S. Sheard and J.T. Paoletti (New Haven, CT, 1978), 189–231

A. Ziino: ‘Laudi e miniature fiorentine del primo trecento’, Studi musicali, vii (1978), 39–84

B.R. Hanning: ‘Glorious Apollo: Poetic and Political Themes in the First Opera’, Renaissance Quarterly, xxxii (1979), 485–513

T. Seebass: ‘Venus und die Musikwissenschaft oder Von der Universalität eines reformatorischen Buchmachers’, Totum me libris dedo: Festschrift zum 80. Geburtstag von Adolf Seebass, ed. A. Moirandat, H. Spilker and V. Tammann (Basle, 1979), 187–99

E. Smulikowska: ‘The Symbolism of Musical Scenes and Ornamental Motifs in Organ Cases’, Organ Yearbook, x (1979), 5–14

K.-A. Wirth: ‘Die kolorierten Federzeichnungen im Cod.2975 der Österreichischen Nationalbibliothek: ein Beitrag zur Ikonographie der Artes Liberales im 15. Jahrhundert’, Anzeiger des Germanischen Nationalmuseums (1979), 67–110

R. Hammerstein: Tanz und Musik des Todes: die mittelalterlichen Totentänze und ihr Nachleben (Berne and Munich, 1980)

D. Hoffmann-Axthelm: ‘Instrumentensymbolik und Aufführungspraxis: zum Verhältnis von Symbolik und Realität in der mittelalterlichen Musikanschauung’, Basler Jb für historische Musikpraxis, iv (1980), 9–90

D. Rosand: ‘“Ermeneutica amorosa”: Observations on the Interpretation of Titian's Venuses’, Tiziano e Venezia: Venice 1976 (Venice, 1980), 375–81

L. Seth: ‘Vermeer och van Veens Amorum emblemata’, Kunsthistorisk tidskrift, xlix/1 (1980), 17–40

U. Fabricius: ‘Musik und Musikinstrumente in Darstellungen der frühchristlichen Kunst’, Festschrift für Bruno Grusnick, ed. R. Saltzwedel and K.D. Koch (Neuhausen-Stuttgart, 1981), 54–80

K.J. Hellerstedt: ‘A Traditional Motif in Rembrandt's Etchings: the Hurdy-Gurdy Player’, Oud Holland, xcv (1981), 16–30

R.D. Leppert: ‘Johann Georg Plazer: Music and Visual Allegory’, Music East and West: Essays in Honor of Walter Kaufmann, ed. T. Noblitt (New York, 1981), 209–24

F. Maschke: Die Kunst im Dienst der Staatsidee Kaiser Karls VI: Ikonographie, Ikonologie und Programmatik des “Kaiserstils” (Berlin and New York, 1981)

E. Höhle and others: ‘Die Neidhart-Fresken im Haus Tuchlauben 19 in Wien: zum Fund profaner Wandmalereien der Zeit um 1400’, Österreichische Zeitschrift für Kunst und Denkmalpflege, xxxvi/3–4 (1982), 110–44

C.-H. Mahling: ‘Bemerkungen zur “Illustrierten Zeitung” als Quelle zur Musikgeschichte des 19. Jahrhunderts’, FAM, xxix (1982), 158–60

D. Möller: Untersuchungen zur Symbolik der Musikinstrumente im Narrenschiff des Sebastian Brant (Regensburg, 1982)

H.C. Worbs: Das Dampfkonzert: Musik and Musikleben des 19. Jahrhunderts in der Karikatur (Wilhelmshaven, 1982)

L'estasi di Santa Cecilia di Raffaello da Urbino nella Pinacoteca Nazionale di Bologna (Bologna, 1983) [exhibition catalogue]

M.S. Podles: ‘Virtue and Vice: Paintings and Sculpture in Two Pictures from the Walters Collection’, Journal of the Walters Art Gallery, xli (1983), 29–44

T. Seebass: ‘The Visualisation of Music through Pictorial Imagery and Notation in Late Mediaeval France’, Studies in the Performance of Late Mediaeval Music, ed. S. Boorman (Cambridge, 1983), 19–33

H.M. Brown: ‘St. Augustine, Lady Music, and the Gittern in Fourteenth-Century Italy’, MD, xxxviii (1984), 25–65

J.W. McKinnon: ‘The Fifteen Temple Steps and the Gradual Psalms’, Imago musicae, i (1984), 29–49

H.C. Slim: ‘Paintings of Lady Concerts and the Transmission of “Jouissance vous donneray”’, Imago musicae, i (1984), 51–73

N. van Deusen: ‘Manuscript and Milieu: Illustration in Liturgical Music Manuscripts’, Gordon Athol Anderson, 1929–81, in memoriam, ed. L.A. Dittmer, i (Henryville, PA, 1984), 71–86

E. Weddingen: ‘Jacopo Tintoretto und die Musik’, Artibus et Historiae, x (1984), 67–119

C. Fernández-Ladedra: Iconografía musical de la Catedral de Pamplona (Pamplona, 1985)

J. Hermand: Adolf Menzel, das Flötenkonzert in Sanssouci: ein realistisch geträumtes Preussenbild (Frankfurt, 1985)

I. Vierimaa: ‘Music in the Struggle between Good and Evil: Mythical Motifs in Finnish Medieval Frescoes’, Musiikin suunta, vii/1 (1985), 21–31

U. Birk: Ikonologische Studien zur Darstellung Apolls in der bildenden Kunst von ca.1400–1600 (diss., U. of Bonn, 1986)

E. Dietrich: ‘Ikonographische Darstellungen der Lyra als Sternbild in mittelalterlichen Handschriften der österreichischen Nationalbibliothek zu Wien’, SMw, xxxvii (1986), 7–12

M. Holl: ‘“Der Musica Triumph”: ein Bilddokument von 1607 zur Auffassung des Humanismus in Deutschland’, Imago musicae, iii (1986), 9–30

E.E. Lowinsky: Cipriano de Rore's Venus Motet: its Poetic and Pictorial Sources (Provo, UT, 1986)

N.K. Moran: Singers in Late Byzantine and Slavonic Painting (Leiden, 1986)

N. Salomon: ‘Political Iconography in a Painting by Jan Miense Molenaer’, Hoogsteder-Naumann Mercury, iv (1986), 23–38

J. Bernstock: ‘Guercino's “Et in Arcadia Ego” and “Apollo Flaying Marsyas”’, Studies in Iconography, xi (1987), 137–83

M.L. Evan: ‘New Light on the “Sforziada” Frontispieces of Giovan Pietro Birago’, British Library Journal, xiii (1987), 232–47

G. Francastel: ‘Le “Concert champêtre” du Louvre et les espaces signifiants’, La Letteratura, la rappresentazione, la musica al tempo e nei luoghi di Giorgione, ed. M. Muraro (Rome, 1987), 215–21

F. Gétreau: ‘Watteau et la musique: réalité et interprétations’, Antoine Watteau (1684–1721), le peintre, son temps et sa légende, ed. F. Moureau and M.M. Grasselli (Paris and Geneva, 1987), 235–46

M. Jullian and G. Le Vot: ‘Notes sur la cohérence formelle des miniatures à sujet musical du manuscrit b.I.2 de l'Escorial’, RdMc, x (1987), 105–14

T. Seebass: ‘The Illustration of Music Theory in the Late Middle Ages: Some Thoughts on its Principles and a Few Examples’, Music Theory and its Sources: Antiquity and the Middle Ages: South Bend, IN, 1987, 197–234

H.C. Slim: ‘Tintoretto's “Music-Making Women” at Dresden’, Imago musicae, iv (1987), 45–78

T. Wind: ‘Musical Participation in Sixteenth-Century Triumphal Entries in the Low Countries’, TVNM, xxxvii (1987), 111–69

F. Dobbins: ‘Le concert dans l'oeuf et la musique dans la tradition de Jérôme Bosch’, Musiques, signes, images: liber amicorum François Lesure, ed. J.-M. Fauquet (Geneva, 1988), 99–116

J.H. Planer: ‘Damned Music: the Symbolism of the Bagpipes in the Art of Hieronymus Bosch and his Followers’, Music from the Middle Ages through the Twentieth Century: Essays in Honor of Gwynn S. McPeek, ed. C.P. Comberiati and M.C. Steel (New York, 1988), 335–57

E.A. Bowles: Musical Ensembles in Festival Books, 1500–1800: an Iconographical and Documentary Survey (Ann Arbor, 1989)

D.J. Buch: ‘The Coordination of Text, Illustration, and Music in a Seventeenth-Century Lute Manuscript: La rhétorique des dieux’, Imago musicae, vi (1989), 39–81

F.T. Camiz: ‘La “Musica” nei quadri del Caravaggio’, Quaderni di Palazzo Venezia, vi (1989), 198–221

N. van Deusen: The Harp and the Soul: Essays in Medieval Music (Lewiston, NY, 1989)

O.H. Jander: ‘The Radoux Portrait of Beethoven's Grandfather: its Symbolic Message’, Imago musicae, vi (1989), 83–107

D. Manon: ‘The Singing “Lute-Player” by Caravaggio from the Barberini Collection, Painted for Cardinal Del Monte’, Burlington Magazine, cxxxii (1990), 5–20

E. Motzkin: ‘The Meaning of Titian's “Concert champêtre” in the Louvre’, Gazette des beaux-arts, 6th ser., cxvi (1990), 51–65

H.C. Slim: ‘Dosso Dossi's “Allegory at Florence” about Music’, JAMS, xliii (1990), 43–98

L. Beschi: ‘Mousikè Téchne e Thánatos: l'immagine della musica sulle lekythoi funerarie attiche a fondo bianco’, Imago musicae, viii (1991), 39–59

J. Braun: ‘Die Musikikonographie des Dionysoskultes im römischen Palästina’, Imago musicae, viii (1991), 109–33

A. Buckley: ‘Music-Related Imagery on Early Christian Insular Sculpture: Identification, Context, Function’, Imago musicae, viii (1991), 135–99

A. Goulaki-Voutira: ‘Observations on Domestic Music Making in Vase Paintings of the Fifth Century B.C.’, Imago musicae, viii (1991), 73–94

T. Seebass: ‘The Power of Music in Greek Vase Painting: Reflections on the Visualization of rhythmos (Order) and epaoidē (Enchanting Song)’, Imago musicae, viii (1991), 11–37

V. Herzner: ‘Tizians “Venus mit dem Orgelspieler”’, Begegnungen: Festschrift Peter Anselm Riedl zum 60. Geburtstag (Worms, 1993), 80–103

T. Connolly: Mourning into Joy: Music, Raphael, and Saint Cecilia (New Haven, 1994)

R. Hammerstein: Von gerissenen Saiten und singenden Zikaden: Studien zur Emblematik der Musik (Tübingen, 1994)

S. Hirsch: ‘Die Ältesten von Oloron und ihr Umkreis: zur Bewertung restaurierter Bildquellen’, Musikalische Ikonographie: Hamburg 1991 [HJbMw, xii (1994)], 147–56

E. Genovesi: Le grottesche della ‘Volta Pinta’ in Assisi (Assisi, 1995)

C. Bianco, M. Carlone and C. Santarelli: ‘Musica picta: iconografia musicale in Piemonte dall’età ottoniana alle soglie del Rinascimento’, Musica peregrina: presenze della musica medievale in Piemonte, ed. C. Bianco (Cavallermaggiore, 1996), 69–115

L. Charles-Dominique: ‘L’iconographie musicale, révélateur de la marginalité: l’example des fêtes toulousaines, officielles, publiques, civiles et religieuses, du XVe au XVIIIe siècle’, Imago musicae, xiii (1996), 145–64

G.C. Bott: Der Klang im Bild: Evaristo Baschenis und die Erfindung des Musikstillebens (Berlin, 1997)

Iconography: Bibliography

f: instruments, notation and performance (europe)

BoydenH

M. Seiffert: ‘Bildzeugnisse des 16. Jahrhunderts für die instrumentale Begleitung des Gesanges und den Ursprung des Musikkupferstiches’, AMw, i (1918–19), 49–67

H. Angles, ed.: La música de las Cantigas de Santa María del Rey Alfonso el Sabio (Barcelona, 1943–64)

V. Denis: De muziekinstrumenten in de Nederlanden en in Italië naar hun afbeelding in de 15e-eeuwsche kunst (Utrecht, 1944; partial Eng. trans. in GSJ, ii, 1949, 32–46)

E.A. Bowles: ‘Haut et Bas: the Grouping of Musical Instruments in the Middle Ages’, MD, viii (1954), 115–40

R. Hammerstein: ‘Instrumenta Hieronymi’, AMw, xvi (1959), 117–34

H. Steger: ‘Die Rotte: Studien über ein germanisches Musikinstrument im Mittelalter’, DVLG, xxxv (1961), 96–147

W. Bachmann: ‘Das byzantinische Musikinstrumentarium’, Anfänge der slavischen Musik: Bratislava 1964, 125–38

W. Bachmann: Die Anfänge des Streichinstrumentenspiels (Leipzig, 1964, 2/1966; Eng. trans., 1969, as The Origins of Bowing and the Development of Bowed Instruments up to the 13th Century)

R. Hammerstein: ‘Zu Quellenkritik und Forschungsaufgaben der Instrumentenkunde des 9. bis 11. Jahrhunderts’, IMSCR IX: Salzburg 1964, ii, 179–82

H. Heyde: Trompete und Trompetenblasen im europäischen Mittelalter (diss., U. of Leipzig, 1965)

J. Perrot: L'orgue de ses origines héllenistiques à la fin du XIIIe siècle ’, Medieval and Renaissance Studies, ii (1968), 74–97

E.M. Ripin: ‘The Two-Manual Harpsichord in Flanders Before 1650’, GSJ, xxi (1968), 33–9

H.J. Zingel: König Davids Harfe in der abendländischen Kunst (Cologne, 1968)

K. Kos: ‘Muzički instrumenti u srednjovjekovnoj likovnoj umjetnosti hrvatske’, Rad Jugoslavenske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti, no.351 (1969), 167–270

V. Ravizza: Das instrumentale Ensemble von 1400–1550 in Italien: Wandel eines Klangbildes (Berne, 1970)

G.S. Bedrock: ‘The Problem of Instrumental Combination in the Middle Ages’, RBM, xxv (1971), 3–67

P. Kuret: Glasbeni instrumenti na srednjeveskih freskah na slovenskem [Musical instruments in medieval Slovenian frescoes] (Ljubljana, 1973)

C.H. Mahling: ‘Der Dudelsack in westeuropäischer Plastik und Malerei’, Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis IV: Balatonalmádi 1973, 63–9

E. Stockmann, ed.: Studia instrumentorium musicae popularis IV: Balatonalmádi 1973

V. Scherliess: ‘Notizen zur musikalischen Ikonographie’, AnMc, no.14 (1974), 1–16; no.15 (1975), 21–8

H.M. Brown: ‘Instruments and Voices in the Fifteenth-Century Chanson’, Current Thought in Musicology, ed. J.W. Grubbs (Austin, 1976), 89–137

E.F. Barassi: Strumenti musicali e testimonianze teoriche nel medio evo (Cremona, 1979)

C. Deconinck: ‘Le luth dans les arts figurés des Pays-Bas au XVIe siècle: étude iconologique’, Revue Belge d'Archéologie et d'Histoire de l'Art, xlviii (1979), 3–43

M. del Rosario Alvarez-Martínez: ‘Aportaciones para un estudio organografico en la plena edad media los instrumentos musicales en los beatos’, Homenaje a Alfonso Trujillo (Santa Cruz de Tenerife, 1982), 47–73

E.A. Bowles: ‘A Preliminary Checklist of Fifteenth-Century Representations of Organs in Paintings and Manuscript Illuminations’, Organ Yearbook, xiii (1982), 5–30

E. Hickmann: ‘Eine ägyptische Harfendarstellung aus hellenistisch-römischer Zeit’, Jb für musikalische Volks- und Völkerkunde, x (1982), 9–19

E.F. Barassi: ‘Strumenti musicali ed esecutori nella società medievale’, Lavorare nel medio evo: Todi 1980 (Perugia, 1983), 297–370

H.M. Brown: ‘The Trecento Harp’, Studies in the Performance of Late Mediaeval Music, ed. S. Boorman (Cambridge, 1983), 35–73

J. McKinnon: ‘Fifteenth-Century Northern Book Painting and the a cappella Question: an Essay in Iconographic Method’, Studies in the Performance of Late Mediaeval Music, ed. S. Boorman (Cambridge, 1983), 1–17

G. Stradner: Spielpraxis und Instrumentarium um 1500: dargestellt an Sebastian Virdungs ‘Musica getutscht’ (Basel 1511) (Vienna, 1983)

R. Pejović: Predstave muzičkih instrumenata u srednjovekovnoj Srbiji [Musical instruments in medieval Serbia], ed. S. Rajičić (Belgrade, 1984) [Eng. summary]

P. Reidemeister, ed.: ‘Mittelalterliche Musikinstrumente: Ikonographie und Spielpraxis’, Basler Jb für historische Musikpraxis, viii (1984)

I. Woodfield: The Early History of the Viol (Cambridge, 1984)

C. Young: ‘Zur Klassifikation und ikonographischen Interpretation mittelalterlicher Zupfinstrumente’, Basler Jb für historische Musikpraxis, viii (1984), 67–104

E.F. Barassi: ‘L'iconografia come fonte di conoscenza organologica’, Per una carta europea del restauro: conservazione, restauro e riuso degli strumenti musicali antichi: Venice 1985, 35–41

M. Remnant: English Bowed Instruments from Anglo-Saxon to Tudor Times (Oxford, 1986)

M. del Rosario Alvarez-Martínez: ‘Los instrumentos musicales en los códices Alfonsinos: su tipología, su uso y su origen – algunos problemas iconográficos’, RdMc, x (1987), 56–104

R. Meucci: ‘Lo strumento del bucinator A. Surus e il cod. Pal.Lat.909 di Vegezio’, Bonner Jb des Rheinischen Landesmuseums, clxxxvii (1987), 259–72

R. Pestell: ‘Medieval Art and the Performance of Medieval Music’, EMc, xv (1987), 56–68

K. Marshall: Iconographical Evidence for the Late-Medieval Organ in French, Flemish, and English Manuscripts (New York, 1989)

K. Polk: ‘Voices and Instruments: Soloists and Ensembles in the 15th Century’, EMc, xviii (1990), 179–98

R. Hammerstein: ‘Imaginäres Gesamtkunstwerk: die niederländischen Bildmotetten des 16. Jahrhunderts’, Die Motette: Beiträge zu ihrer Gattungsgeschichte, ed. H. Schneider and H.-J. Winkler (Mainz, 1991), 165–203

M. von Schaik: The Harp in the Middle Ages: the Symbolism of a Musical Instrument (Amsterdam and Atlanta, GA, 1992)

C. Homo-Lechner: Sons et instruments de musique au Moyen Age: archéologie musicale dans l'Europe du VIIe au XIVe siècles (Paris, 1996)

Iconography: Bibliography

g: folk music

I. Mačák: ‘Zur Verifikation ikonographischer Informationen über Musikinstrumente’, Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis IV: Balatonalmádi 1973, 49–51

W. Brednich: ‘Liedkolportage and geistlicher Bänkelsang: neue Funde zur Ikonographie der Liedpublizistik’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xxii (1977), 71–9

R. Brückmann: ‘Das Bänkelsang-Motiv in der deutschen Karikatur von 1848/49’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xxii (1977), 80–94

K. Kos: ‘St Kümmernis and her Fiddler: an Approach to Iconology of Pictorial Folk Art’, SMH, xix (1977), 251–66

R. Pejović: ‘Folk Musical Instruments in Mediavel and Renaissance Art of South Slav Peoples’, Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis VIII: Piran, Croatia, 1983, 126–43

D. Pistone: ‘La musique dans le Charivari’, Revue internationale de musique française, no.10 (1983), 7–54

F. Crane: ‘Black American Music in Pictures: Some Themes and Opportunities’, Black Music Research: Washington DC 1985 [Black Music Research Journal (1986)], 27–47

C. Marcel-Dubois: ‘Le triangle et ses représentations comme signe social et culturel’, Imago musicae, iv (1987), 121–35

K. Kos: ‘Osten und Westen in der Feld- und Militärmusik an der türkischen Grenze’, Imago musicae, v (1988), 109–27

T. Seebass: ‘Léopold Robert and Italian Folk Music’, World of Music, xxx/3 (1988), 59–84

A. Florea: ‘Music in Carol Popp de Szathmary's Paintings’, Imago musicae, vi (1989), 109–41

F. Guizzi and N. Staiti, eds.: Le forme dei suoni: l'iconografia del tamburello in Italia, Palazzo Pitti, Florence, 6 July – 6 Aug 1989 (Florence, 1989) [exhibition catalogue]

A. Goulaki-Voutira: ‘Neugriechischer Tanz und Musik aus europäischer Sicht’, Imago musicae, vii (1990), 189–232

F. Guizzi: ‘The Sounds of povertà contenta: Cityscape, Landscape, Soundscape, and Musical Portraiture in Italian Painting of the 17th and 18th Centuries’, Imago musicae, vii (1990), 115–47

T. Seebass: ‘Idyllic Arcadia and Italian Musical Reality: Experiences of German Writers and Artists (1770–1835)’ Imago musicae, vii (1990), 149–87

Iconography: Bibliography

h: non-european art

L. Schermann: ‘Musizierende Genien in der religiösen Kunst des birmanischen Buddhismus’, Festschrift für Friedrich Hirth zum seinem 75. Geburtstag, ed. O. Kümmel, W. Cohn and E. Hänisch (Berlin, 1920), 345–53

R. van Gulik: The Lore of the Chinese Lute: an Essay in the Ideology of the Ch'in (Tokyo, 1940, 2/1969)

J. Agthe: Die Abbildungen in Reiseberichten aus Ozeanien als Quellen für die Völkerkunde (16–18. Jahrhundert) (Munich, 1969)

A.P. de Mirmonde: ‘La musique orientale dans les oeuvres de l'école française du XVIIe siècle’, Revue du Louvre et des Musées de France, xix (1969), 231–46

F.Ll. Harrison: Time, Place and Music: an Anthology of Ethnomusicological Observation c.1550 to c.1800, Source Materials and Studies in Ethnomusicology, i (Amsterdam, 1973)

Lee Hye-ku: ‘Musical Paintings in a Fourth-Century Korean Tomb’, Korea Journal, xiv/3 (1974), 4–14

Japanse prenten met muziek/Japanese Woodcuts with Music (The Hague, 1975) [exhibition catalogue]

G.H. Karakhanian: ‘Reliefs of Musicians on the Khatchkars of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Century’, Lraber hasarakan gitouthiounneri, cccxcix/3 (1976), 99–105 [in Armenian, with summary in Russ.]

F. Willet: ‘A Contribution to the History of Musical Instruments among the Yoruba’, Essays for a Humanist: an Offering to Klaus Wachsmann (New York, 1977), 350–86

E. Bassani: ‘Un corno afro-portoghese con decorazione africana: gli olifanti afro-portoghesi della Sierra Leone’, Critica d'Arte, 2nd ser., xxv (1979), 167–74, 175–201

M. Pirazzoli-t'Serstevens: ‘The Bronze Drums of Shizhai shan: their Social and Ritual Significance’, Early South East Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History and Historical Geography, ed. R.B. Smith and W. Watson (New York, 1979), 125–36

G. Sen: ‘Music and Musical Instruments in the Paintings of Akbar Nama’, National Centre for the Performing Arts Quarterly Journal, viii/4 (1979), 1–7

F. Feuchtwanger: ‘Tlatilco-Terrakotten von Akrobaten, Ballspielern, Musikanten und Tanzenden’, Baessler-Archiv, xxviii (1980), 131–53

K. Reinhard: ‘Turkish Miniatures as Sources of Music History’, Music East and West: Essays in Honor of Walter Kaufmann, ed. T. Noblitt (New York, 1981), 143–166

P. Crossley-Holland: Musical Instruments in Tibetan Legend and Folklore (Los Angeles, 1982)

R. Flora: ‘Miniature Paintings: Important Sources for Music History’, Performing Arts in India, ed. B. Wade (Berkeley, CA, 1983), 196–230

W. Denny: ‘Music and Musicians in Islamic Art’, Asian Music, xvii/1 (1985), 37–68

D. Gramit: ‘The Music Paintings of the Capella Palatina in Palermo’, Imago musicae, ii (1985), 9–49

M. Hariharan and G. Kuppuswamy: Music in Indian Art (Delhi, 1985)

A. Pilipczuk: Elfenbeinhörner im sakralen Königtum Schwarzafrikas (Bonn, 1985)

A. Vickers: ‘The Realm of Senses: Images of the Court Music of Pre-Colonial Bali’, Imago musicae, ii (1985), 143–77

I. Cavallini: ‘La musica turca nelle testimonianze dei viaggiatori e nella trattatistica del Sei/Settecento’, RIM, xxi (1986), 144–69

S.E. Lee: ‘“Listening to the Ch'in” by Liu Sung-Nien’, Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art, lxxiii (1986), 372–87

D. Waterhouse: ‘Korean Music, Trick Horsemanship and Elephants in Tokugawa Japan’, The Oral and the Literate Music, ed. Y. Tokumaru and O. Yamaguti (Tokyo, 1986), 353–70

O. Mensink: ‘Hachogane, ’t gebeyer of 't Musiek van achten’, Jaarboek Haags Gemeentemuseum 1991 (1992), 6–23

Egaka reta sairei, Kunitachi Museum for the History of Popular Culture, Tokyo, 15 Nov – 18 Dec 1994 (Tokyo, 1994) [exhibition catalogue]

T. Steppan, ed.: Die Artuqiden-Schale im Tiroler Landesmuseum Ferdinandeum Innsbruck: mittelalterliche Emailkunst zwischen Orient und Occident, Innsbruck U., 4 – 13 May 1995 (Munich, 1995) [exhibition catalogue]

Iconography: Bibliography

i: instruments and performance (outside europe)

J. Kunst and R. Goris: Hindoe-Javaansche Muziekinstrumenten (Weltevreden, 1927; Eng. trans., rev., 1968)

A. Huth: Die Musikinstrumente Ost-Turkistans bis zum 11. Jahrhundert nach Christi (diss., Berlin U., 1928)

C. Marcel-Dubois: Les instruments de musique de l'Inde ancienne (Paris, 1941)

K. Finsterbusch: ‘Die Mundorgeln des Museums für Völkerkunde zu Leipzig und die Darstellungen des Instrumentes in Ost- und Südostasien’, Veröffentlichungen des Museums für Völkerkunde zu Leipzig, xi (1961), 123–40, pls.123–40

S. Kishibe: ‘A Chinese Painting of the T'ang Court Women's Orchestra’, The Commonwealth of Music, in Honor of Curt Sachs, ed. G. Reese and R. Brandel (New York, 1965), 104–17

G.H. and N. Tarlekar: Musical Instruments in Indian Sculpture (Puna, 1972)

K. Vatsyayan: Traditions of Indian Folk Dance (New Delhi, 1976, enlarged 2/1987)

R.T. Mok: ‘Ancient Musical Instruments Unearthed in 1972 from the Number One Hand Tomb at Ma Wang Tui, Changsa: Translation and Commentary of Chinese Reports’, Asian Music, x/1 (1978), 39–91

R. Günther: ‘Abbild oder Zeichen: Bemerkungen zur Darstellung von Musikinstrumenten an indischen Skulpturen im Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum zu Köln’, Ars Musica, musica scientia: Festschrift Heinrich Hüschen, ed. D. Altenburg (Cologne, 1980), 198–211

G. Siromoney: ‘Musical Instruments from Pallava Sculpture’, Kalakshetra Quarterly, ii/4 (1980), 11–20

Collection of Sources of Musical Instruments (Tokyo, 1980–90) [in Jap.]

M. Williamson: ‘The Iconography of Arched Harps in Burma’, Music and Tradition: Essays … presented to Laurence Picken, ed. D.R. Widdess and R.F. Wolpert (Cambridge, 1981), 209–28

S. Kashima: ‘Kugo no zuzogaku – ongaku – zuzogaku no ichishiron’ [Iconography of the kugo (harp)], Ongaku kenkyū, Kunitachi College of Music, v (1983), 35–86

M. Tajima: ‘About Historical Changes in Depictions of Musical Instruments: an Iconographical Study of Musical Instruments in Amida-Raigozu’, Ongaku kenkyū, Kunitachi College of Music, v (1983), 102–79 [in Jap.]

Tong Kin-woon: ‘Shang Musical Instruments’, Asian Music, xiv/2 (1983), 17–182

J. Bor: ‘The Voice of the Sārangī: an Illustrated History of Bowing in India’, Quarterly Journal of the National Centre for Performing Arts, xv–xvi/3–4, 1 (1986–7), 9–183

H.D. Bodman: Chinese Musical Iconography: a History of Musical Instruments Depicted in Chinese Art (Taibei, 1987)

R.L. Hardgrave and S.M. Slawek: ‘Instruments and Music Culture in Eighteenth-Century India: the Solvyn Portraits’, Asian Music, xx/1 (1988), 1–92

Zheng Ruzhong: ‘Musical Instruments in the Wall Paintings of Dunhuang’, CHIME, no.7 (1993), 4–56

B.C. Wade: ‘Performing the Drone in Hindustani Classical Music: what Mughal Paintings show us to hear’, World of Music, xxxviii/2 (1996), 41–67

Iconography: Bibliography

j: the musical instrument as an image

G. Servières: La décoration artistique des buffets d'orgues (Paris and Brussels, 1928)

C. Sachs: Geist und Werden der Musikinstrumente (Berlin, 1929)

D.H. Meyer: ‘De spleettrom’, Tijdschrift voor de Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, lxxix (1939), 415–46

T.C. Grame: ‘The Symbolism of the 'ud’, Asian Music, iii/1 (1972), 25–34

Gen'ichi Tsuge: ‘Musical Idols: Beasts in the Form of Instruments’, Festschrift for Dr. Chang Sa-hun: Articles on Asian Music (Seoul, 1976), 407–19

G. and L. Bauer: ‘Bernini's Organ-Case for S. Maria del Popolo’, Art Bulletin, lxii/1 (1980), 115–23

D.W. Penney: ‘Northern New Guinea Slit-Gong Sculpture’, Baessler-Archiv, xxviii (1980), 347–85

C. Rueger: Musikinstrument und Dekor (Gütersloh, 1982)

A. Pilipczuk: ‘Dekorative Verwertung alchimistischer und astrologischer Bildelemente auf Joachim Tielkes Gitarre von 1703’, Jb des Museums für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg, ii (1983), 27–40

D.A. Olsen: ‘The Flutes of El Dorado: Musical Effigy Figurines of the Tairona’, Imago musicae, iii (1986), 79–102

E. Emsheimer: ‘On the Ergology and Symbolism of a Shaman drum of the Khakass’, Imago musicae, v (1988), 145–66

U. Groos: ‘Westfälische Orgelflügel als Bildträger’, Barocke Orgelkunst in Westfalen (Soest, 1995), 150–54 [exhibition catalogue]

Iconography: Bibliography

k: contextual sources (performance sites)

E. Winternitz: ‘Quattrocento Science in the Gubbio Study’, Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, i/2 (1942), 104–16

A.P. de Mirimonde: ‘Les “Cabinets de musique”’, Jaarboek van het Kongelige Museum voor Schone Kunsten Antwerpen (1966), 141–80

M. Viale Ferrero: ‘Repliche a Torino di alcuni melodrammi veneziani e loro caratteristiche’, Venezia e il melodramma nel Seicento, ed. M.T. Muraro (Florence, 1976), 145–72

R. Bailey: ‘Visual and Musical Symbolism in German Romantic Opera’, IMSCR XII: Berkeley 1977, 436–44

A. Bourde: ‘Opera seria et scénographie: autour de deux toiles italiennes du XVIIIe siècle!’, L'opéra au XVIIIe siècle: Aix-en-Provence 1977, 229–53

F. Degrada: ‘Prolegomeni a una lettura della Sonnambula’, Il melodramma italiano dell'Ottocento: studi e ricerche per Massimo Mila, ed. G. Pestelli (Turin, 1977), 319–50

W. Liebenwein: Studiolo: die Entstehung eines Raumtyps und seine Entwicklung bis um 1600 (Berlin, 1977)

S. Leopold: ‘Zur Szenographie der Türkenoper’, Die stylistische Entwicklung der italienischen Musik zwischen 1770 und 1830: Rome 1978 [AnMc, no.21 (1982)], 370–79

M.T. Muraro and E. Povoledo: ‘Le Scene della Fida Ninfa: Maffei, Vivaldi e Francesco Bibbiena’, Vivaldi veneziano europeo: Venice 1978, 235–52

H.J. Raupp: ‘Musik im Atelier: Darstellungen musizierender Künstler in der niederländischen Malerei des 17. Jahrhunderts’, Oud Holland, xcii (1978), 106–29

M. Viale Ferrero: ‘Antonio e Pietro Ottoboni e alcuni melodrammi da loro identi o promossi a Roma’, Venezia e il melodramma nel Settecento, ed. M.T. Muraro (Florence, 1978), 271–94

D. Ming-Yüeh Liang: ‘The Artistic Symbolism of the Painted Faces in Chinese Opera: an Introduction’, World of Music, xxii/1 (1980), 72–85

A.M. Testaverde: ‘Feste Medicee: la visita, le nozze e il trionfo’, Città effimera a l'universo artificiale del giardino: la Firenze dei Medici e l'Italia del ’500, ed. M.F. dell'Arco (Rome, 1980), 69–100

M. Viale Ferrero: La scenografia dalle origini al 1936, Storia del Teatro Regio di Torino, ed. A. Basso, iii (Turin, 1980)

D. Heartz: ‘Vis comica: Goldoni, Galuppi and L'Arcadia in Brenta (Venice, 1749)’, Studi di musica veneta, vii (1981), 33–73

W. Eckhardt: ‘Gottfried Sempers Planungen für ein Richard Wagner-Festtheater in München’, Jb des Museums für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg, ii (1983), 41–72

W.L. Barcham: ‘Costumes in the Frescoes of Tiepolo and Eighteenth-Century Opera’, Opera & Vivaldi, ed. M. Collins and E.K. Kirk (Austin, TX, 1984), 149–69

H. Himelfarb: ‘Lieux éminents du grand motet: décor symbolique et occupation de l'espace dans les deux dernières chapelles royales de Versailles (1682 et 1710)’, Le grand motet français: Paris 1984, 17–27

E. Povoledo: ‘Incontri romani: Franceso Bibiena e Giovanni Paolo Pannini (1719–1721)’, RIM, xx (1985), 296–327

P. Russo: ‘“L'isola di Alcina”: funzioni drammaturgiche del “divertissement” nella “tragédie lyrique” (1699–1735)’, NRMI, xxi (1987), 1–15

G.B. Salmen: ‘Musikerwohnungen des 19. Jahrhunderts als ikonographische Quelle’, Imago musicae, iv (1987), 151–8

M. Srocke: ‘Die Entwicklung der räumlichen Darstellung in der Inszenierungsgeschichte von Wagners Tristan und Isolde’, JbO, iii (1990), 43–68

N. Guidobaldi: La musica di Federico: immagini e suoni alla corte di Urbino (Florence, 1995)

Iconography: Bibliography

l: portraits

H. Prunières: ‘Un portrait de Hobrecht et de Verdelot par Sebastiano del Piombo’, ReM, iii/6–8 (1921–2), 193–8

A. Cametti: Arcangelo Corelli: i suoi quadri, i suoi violini (Rome, 1927)

A. Della Corte: Satire e grotteschi di musiche e di musicisti d'ogni tempo (Turin, 1946)

E. Panofsky: ‘Who is Jan van Eyck's “Tymotheus”?’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, xii (1949), 80–90

W. Braun: ‘Arten des Komponistenporträts’, Festschrift für Walter Wiora, ed. L. Finscher and C.-H. Mahling (Kassel, 1967), 86–94

D. and E. Rosand: ‘“Barbara di Santa Sofia” and “Il Prete Genovese”: on the Identity of a Portrait by Bernardo Strozzi’, Art Bulletin, lxiii (1981), 249–58

H. Loos, ed.: Musik-Karikaturen (Dortmund, 1982)

P. Petrobelli: ‘Il musicista di teatro settecentesco nelle caricature di Pierleone Ghezzi’, Antonio Vivaldi: teatro musicale, cultura e società, ed. L. Bianconi and G. Morelli (Florence, 1982), 415–26

W. and G. Salmen: Musiker im Porträt (Munich, 1982–4)

T. Ford: ‘Andrea Sacchi's “Apollo Crowning the Singer Marc Antonio Pasqualini”’, EMc, xii (1984), 79–84

D. Heartz: ‘Portrait of a Court Musician: Gaetano Pugnani of Turin’, Imago musicae, i (1984), 103–19

A. Comini: The Changing Image of Beethoven: a Study in Myth Making (New York, 1987)

F.T. Camiz: ‘The Castrato Singer: from Informal to Formal Portraiture’, Artibus et Historiae, no.18 (1988), 171–86

N. Guidobaldi: Il ritratto di musicista e l'immagine della musica (diss., Bologna U. degli Studi, 1988)

T. Seebass: ‘Lady Music and her protégés: from Musical Allegory to Musicians’ Portraits’, MD, xlii (1988), 23–61

M. Wehnert: ‘Das Persönlichkeitsbild des Musikers als ikonographisches Problem: andeutungsweise dargestellt am Beispiel Carl Maria von Webers’, Musikalische Ikonographie: Hamburg 1991 [HJbMw, xii (1994)], 297–308

Iconography: Bibliography

m: music and the visual arts

W. Kandinsky: Über das Geistige in der Kunst (Munich, 1911)

W. Kandinsky and F. Marc, eds.: Der Blaue Reiter (Munich, 1912; Eng. trans., rev., 1974, as The Blaue Reiter Almanac: New Documentary Edition)

O.C. Gangoly: Rāgas and Rāginīs (Bombay, 1934–5)

L. Parigi: Musiche in pittura (Signa, 1939)

P.O. Runge: Sein Leben in Selbstzeugnissen, Briefen und Berichten (Berlin, 1942)

T. Munro: The Arts and their Interrelations: a Survey of the Arts and an Outline of Comparative Aesthetics (New York, 1949)

A. Schaeffner: ‘Debussy et ses rapports avec la peinture’, Debussy et l'évolution de la musique au XXe siècle: Paris 1962, 151–66

E. and R.L. Waldschmidt: Musikinspirierte Miniaturen, i (Wiesbaden, 1966), ii (Berlin, 1975); Eng. trans. as Miniatures of Musical Inspiration in the Collection of the Berlin Museum of Indian Art (Berlin, 1967–75)

K. Ebeling: Rāgamālā Painting (Basle, 1973)

E. Lockspeiser: Music and Painting: a Study in Comparative Ideas from Turner to Schönberg (London, 1973)

R.M. Bisanz: ‘The Romantic Synthesis of the Arts: Nineteenth-Century German Theories on a Universal Art’, Konsthistorisk tidskrift, xliv/1–2 (1975), 38–46

A.L. Dahmen-Dallapiccola: Rāgamālā-Miniaturen von 1475–1700 (Wiesbaden, 1975)

G. Le Coat: ‘Anglo-Saxon Interlace Structure, Rhetoric and Musical Troping’, Gazette des beaux-arts, 6th ser., lxxxvii (1976), 1–6

A. Daniélou: ‘Symbolism in the Musical Theories of the Orient’, World of Music, xx/3 (1978), 24–37

T.J. Ellingson: The Mandala of Sound: Concepts and Sound Structures in Tibetan Ritual Music (diss., U. of Wisconsin, 1979)

F. Würtenberger: Malerei und Musik: die Geschichte des Verhaltens zweier Künste zueinander, dargestellt nach den Quellen im Zeitraum von Leonardo da Vinci bis John Cage (Frankfurt, 1979)

H.S. Powers: ‘Illustrated Inventories of Indian rāgamālā Painting’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, c (1980), 473–93

S. Misra: ‘Music Visualised Through Paintings’, Kalākshetra Quarterly, v/4 (1982–3), 17–22

A. Kagan: Paul Klee: Art and Music (Ithaca, NY, 1983)

N. Perloff: ‘Klee und Webern: Speculations on Modernist Theories of Composition’, MQ, lxix (1983), 180–208

P. Friedheim: ‘Wagner and the Aesthetics of the Scream’, 19CM, vii (1983–4), 63–70

H.-K. Metzger: ‘Schönberg und Kandinsky: ein Beitrag zum Verhältnis von Musik und Malerei’, Musik wozu? Literatur zu Noten (Frankfurt, 1984), 181–207

L.I. al Faruqi: ‘Structural Segments in the Islamic Arts: the Musical “Translation” of a Characteristic of the Literary and Visual Arts’, Asian Music, xvi/1 (1985), 59–82

K. von Maur, ed.: Vom Klang der Bilder: die Musik in der Kunst des 20. Jahrhunderts, Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, 1985 (Munich, 1985) [exhibition catalogue]

J. Schwarcz: ‘Die Darstellung des Geistes der Musik im Bilderbuch’, Librarium, xxix (1986), 190–202

E. Balas: ‘Bartók and Brancusi’, Imago musicae, vi (1989), 165–92

W. Seidel: ‘Die Symphonie von Moritz von Schwind’, Der Text des Bildes, ed. W. Kemp (Munich, 1989), 10–34

G. Rötter: ‘Die Gestaltung von Schallplattencovern’, Musik und Bildende Kunst: Augsburg 1988, 154–61

U. Bischoff, ed.: Kunst als Grenzbeschreitung: John Cage und die Moderne (Munich, 1991) [exhibition catalogue]

H.Q. Rinne: Concepts of Time and Space in Selected Works of Jazz Improvisation and Painting (diss., Ohio U., 1991)

U. Kersten: Max Klinger und die Musik (Frankfurt, 1993)

E. Schmierer and others, eds.: Töne – Farben – Formen: über Musik und die bildenden Künste, Festschrift Elmar Budde (Laaber, 1995)

T. Steiert: Das Kunstwerk in seinem Verhältnis zu den Künsten: Beziehungen zwischen Musik und Malerei (Frankfurt, 1995)

Canto d'Amore Klassizistische Moderne in Musik und bildender Kunst 1914–1935, Kunstmuseum Basle, 1996 (Basle, 1996) [exhibition catalogue]