Higher history

Common Language

• 
  the unifying force of language
  

In 1815 there were strong pro–German feelings as most people within the borders of the old Holy Roman Empire spoke German, this was a powerful unifying force. The biggest cultural factor was undoubtedly language which helped to unite all German speaking peoples and gave them an identity.

“Through a common language and through common national characteristics which unite the German, they are separate from others…those who speak the same language are joined by a multitude of invisible bonds…they understand each other and have the power to make themselves understood more and more clearly; they belong to one another and are by nature one and inseparably whole”

Mitchell
Whenever a separate language is found there is also a separate nation which has

the right to manage its affairs independently and rule itself.”

Fichte

Influence of students

• 
  e.g. the Hambacherfest festival 1830.
  

This cultural flowering inspired middle class intellectuals who were active in the universities (student nationalist societies were set up - “burschenschaften”) promoting the ideas of nationalism and liberalism. In 1817 a national and liberal student society was founded for all Germans - Metternich tried to close this down as part of the Carlsbad decrees of 1819 - but this had opposite effect and contributed to growth of resistance to Austria. For example, in 1817 in Wartburg there was a nationalist demonstration of some 500 students involving burning anti nationalist books. In Hambach in 1832 there was a nationalist gathering of some 25,000 students and in 1833 there was an unsuccessful uprising by students. This clearly shows that despite the Carlsbad Decrees, nationalism amongst students continued to grow.

Task

5. 
   Complete a storyboard on the German States in 1815. Your teacher will give you the template.
   

6. 
   Read pages 85-86. Describe the actions and attitudes of the students. How did the authorities deal with signs of nationalism amongst the universities?
   

7. 
   Why does Stiles argue that “Liberalism and Nationalism remained largely middle class before 1848” (page 85)?
   

8. 
   On the other hand, what evidence can you give to show that nationalist feeling had spread to large numbers of ordinary people?
   

9. 
   Expert groups.
   

Your teacher will divide you into groups of 4 and give each member some information to read about cultural nationalism. Once you have read about your area, each member of the group will then go and discuss their findings with the people in the other groups who have been given the same task. The original group will then reconvene and each member of the group will teach the others about their area. Decide on what you think is the key information about cultural nationalism and then try to explain cultural nationalism in 15 words or less using the guidelines below.

• 
  What it was.
  
• 
  Why people were cultural nationalists.
  
• 
  Evidence of nationalist feeling in the first half of the 19^th century.
  

2. 
   
   2. 
      Economic Factors
      
   
   

Economic Nationalism – this grew due to a belief that unity would remove the trade barriers between states and this would allow economic growth and prosperity.

Industrialisation and Population Growth

Economic nationalism encouraged feelings of unity amongst the many German states in the early 19^th Century. Ordinary people were embracing the new opportunities for work in the rapidly growing towns. The twin forces of urbanisation and industrialisation were important factors for change. The population throughout the German states had increased from 2.5 million in 1816 to over 34 million by 1840.

Attitudes of Businessmen

The existence of many different currencies, customs regulations, taxes and legal systems highlighted the many problems faced by businesses of the time. It should be no surprise that middle class businessmen were at the forefront of demands for a more united market to enable them to compete with countries such as Britain.

The Zollverein

The first step towards economic unification came in the form of a customs union called the Zollverein that provided a free trade area for the German states but excluded Austria.

“The Zollverein was a force for unity in the 1840s and therefore a focal point for nationalistic sentiments. As a result, Prussia, despite its reactionary political sympathies, came to be regarded by many as the natural leader of Germany.”

Stiles

Task

Read the bottom of page 83 to 84.

10. 
    Which great German thinker of the age wanted Germany to unite for economic reasons?
    
11. 
    Who wanted an end to trade barriers and why would unification be beneficial to them?
    
12. 
    What did economists such as List, believe?
    

Read page 88-90 and answer the following questions:

13. 
    Describe the main industrial and population changes taking place in the German states after 1815 – summarise the main changes on a mind map using colour to identify different factors (p. 86-87)
    

14. 
    How did Prussian economic expansion effect the growth of German nationalism?
    

15. 
    What was the Zollverein and how did it promote nationalism?
    

16. 
    Why were the railways an important factor in the economic development of the German states?
    

17. 
    In your essays, you will need to know historian’s views if you want to gain the highest marks. Explain the views of William Carr (page 88) and Andrina Stiles (page 89) on the Zollverein and note a short phrase from each historian in your jotter.
    

18. 
    Give a 60 word summary of the position of Prussia between 1815 and 1850 using page 89-90 in the textbook. Read and then condense the key points in your own words.
    

3. 
   
   3. 
      Political Factors
      
   
   

The impact of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars
There was a rise in German Nationalism in reaction to the French invasion by Napoleon. The French conscripted German men into their armies. The French badly affected German trade by banning trade with Britain. In addition, French officials were harsh. The result was a common enemy that the Germans were encouraged to resist. Napoleon became a hated figure, and France an established foe. Anger and resent built and eventually, German resistance and the war of liberation from 1813 to 1815 inspired German patriots to aim for unification.
As a result of the French Revolution ideas of Liberalism and Nationalism spread. Liberalism is in part, a desire for a democratic government. Therefore ‘Liberal Nationalism’ was the desire for a united Germany with a liberal constitution that would guarantee the rights of citizens. Many believed that the individual state princes should be removed from their autocratic rule and Germany should be united under an elected government. This was obviously resisted by those who were in power; however, they could not stop the spread of Liberalism and Nationalism throughout the German states.
The 1840 Rhine crisis
This began when the French revived their claim to the Rhine as a natural frontier. This led to widespread demonstrations throughout Germany, and forces throughout the German states mobilised. This was significant as it was not just the states whose borders were affected, indicating that the German states recognised a Germanic border that they had to work together to protect against their common enemy, the French. In addition, many working class men signed up to fight signifying it was not just the middle classes who had nationalism sentiments!
The 1848 revolutions
Trade depression, unemployment and high food prices because of bad harvests led to revolutions throughout Europe. Nationalists and liberals saw their chance. Everywhere, the rulers of the small states fled. Elections were held to local assemblies and then to a national convention to create a united Germany. This met at Frankfurt but failed to achieve its aims. It can be said that although the Frankfurt Assembly failed, the very fact that the Assembly was elected reflects a widespread desire for a united Germany.

Task

Read pages 82, top of page 85, top of page 86 and chapter 7, pages 92-100.

19. 
    Why had French invasion and occupation in the early 19^th century stimulated the growth of national feeling in the German states?
    
20. 
    Among which groups was nationalism strongest?
    
21. 
    What does Stiles comment about Liberalism and Nationalism (see bottom of page 85)
    
22. 
    What was the event in 1840 that contradicts Stiles’ comment? Explain why.
    
23. 
    Write a short paragraph that explains what happened in the 1948 revolutions.
    
24. 
    What was significant about the 1948 revolutions that also suggests that Stiles was not completely right in her comment?
    

Conclusion

German nationalism was established through the structure and organisation of the Napoleonic period which replaced the Holy Roman Empire. States were reduced in number and borders set. This was maintained following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 and national confidence grew as a result. The Zollverein brought some stability and improved the economy within the states. Cultural and political issues also began to influence the desire for a national identity. The influence of Prussia as a strong power within the region certainly encouraged the smaller states to support the idea of a greater Germany with Prussia as a possible leader.

1. 
   Decision making exercise – In small groups, identify 6 key factors in the growth of German nationalism 1815-1850. Rank these factors in order of importance – which do you think were most important in the growth of nationalism? Be ready to feed back to the class and to explain your decision.
   

Historians:

Thomson – The French revolutionaries spread liberalism by intention but created nationalism [in the German states] by inadvertence.

McKichan – The disillusionment caused by French domination encouraged some…Germans to long for the day when their nation would be united and free from foreign rule

Kerr and McGonigle – the main unifying force was language

Mitchell – quotes Fichte: ‘a common language and common national characteristics unite the Germans…those who speak the same language are joined to each other by a multitude of invisible bonds’

Stiles – Liberalism and Nationalism remained largely middle-class before 1848

Mitchell – suggests that the most important barrier to the economic development of the German states was political fragmentation

Carr – It would be inappropriate to see the Zollverein as the forerunner of German political unity. Prussia was not thinking in terms of political unification when it founded the customs union


Example Essay Questions:

[Bold/underlined = isolated factor]

How important were cultural factors in the growth of national feeling in Germany between 1815 and 1850?
To what extent did the Zollverein stimulate nationalism in the German states before 1850?
How important were political factors in the growth of German Nationalism between 1815 and 1850?
Topic 2

How far did Nationalism develop in the German states by 1850?


Learning intentions:

To understand the extent to which nationalism grew in the German states by 1850

Introduction

When the representatives of the victorious powers from the Napoleonic Wars signed the Treaty of Vienna in 1815, they might have been forgiven for thinking that their task was complete. The traditional rulers of the European states had been restored to power and as far as possible the boundaries had been redrawn to turn back the clock to 1789 before the wars with France began. The twin forces of liberalism and nationalism seemed to have been defeated. However, it was to prove impossible to prevent growing support for these twin ideas as events up until 1850 were to show. Some things had changed, the old Holy Roman Empire had been replaced by the German Confederation (Bund) and under the leadership of Austria it was unlikely to support any nationalistic revolt and indeed was more likely to support conservatism and oppose further change.

Task

1. 
   Read and discuss the following issues and then take notes:
   

• 
  Attitude of middle Classes (Why were they in favour of unity? What role did they take in the German states? What political freedoms did they seek?)
  
• 
  Attitude of the peasants
  
• 
  Sources of discontent (Town and countryside)
  

Stand and Deliver – In small groups of 3 or 4, you will be given one of the heading above to learn as a group. You must identify the key points for that heading (at least 4 separate pieces of information in each heading – 12 to learn altogether). You will learn the information together and then be asked to report back to the rest of the class.
Task

Read and discuss ‘The Forces for change’ section (P95)

Under the heading ‘Forces for Change’ answer the following questions:

2. 
   What happened in 1848 to add pressure for change?
   
3. 
   What was the opinion of Frederick William of Prussia?
   
4. 
   What action did the Frankfurt parliament take and what problems did it face?
   
5. 
   Explain the issue of: (a) Austrian inclusion (Grossdeutschland)
   

(b) Austrian exclusion (Kleindeutschland

6. 
   How did Austrio-Prussian rivalry affect the prospect of German unification?
   
7. 
   Draw a storyboard to show what happened in the 1848 Revolutions in 6 sets of images and text. This should give reasons, events of 1848 revolutions and outcome.
   

Task

Why did the 1848 revolutions fail?

Following a class discussion take some notes based on the following:

• 
  Lack of clear aims
  
• 
  State authority
  
• 
  Lasting change
  
• 
  Poor organisation
  
• 
  Prussian influence
  
• 
  Self interest
  
• 
  Which factors do you think were most important? Rank them in order of importance by writing a number beside each section in your notes.
  

The Revolutions of 1848 ultimately failed for a wide variety of reasons and German unification was once again set back.

Task

In small groups prepare a short lesson (5-10 min) to summarize the Growth of Nationalism.

Present your lesson to the class in a style of your choice:

You could use:

• 
  PowerPoint
  
• 
  Whiteboard
  
• 
  Lecture
  
• 
  Interactive materials
  
• 
  Quiz
  

This lesson must cover all of the key information from the first two chapters in the textbook.

Conclusion

Although there would seem to be growing feeling of nationalistic thoughts and beliefs throughout the German states there remained many obstacles in the path of unification. Austrio-Prussian rivalry hindered the emergence of a strong leader to drive unification forward. The failure of the 1848 Revolutions and the problems within the Frankfurt parliament proved to be major setbacks also. Political and religious divisions added to the difficulties as did the reluctance of individual states rules to surrender their power or territory.

Topic 3

What were the obstacles to German unification?


Learning intentions:

To evaluate the obstacles to unification in the German states between 1815 and 1850 and come to a conclusion about the most important reason.

Essay Factors:

• 
  Role of the bund
  
• 
  Fear of Prussia
  
• 
  Attitude and influence of great European powers
  
• 
  Religious divisions
  
• 
  Divisions among Nationalists
  
• 
  Negative attitude of the German leaders
  

Information

Germany in the early 19^th century was an area, not a nation…

Compared to other European countries such as Britain and France, Germany is a mere youth! The country we now know as Germany was born in 1871 when Otto Von Bismarck the Chancellor (Prime Minister) of Prussia skilfully created a series of diplomatic crisis’s and wars to unite the German states. However, Bismarck cannot claim sole credit for German unification. The Germanic states had much in common, particularly language, culture and a desire for greater economic cooperation symbolised by the Zollverein. Within these bonds lay the potential for a powerful, united Germany.

The main question to be tackled in this section is: with so much in common why did the German states not unite before 1871?

Task

1. 
   a)What unites Scotland as a nation? Write down three things that you feel provides Scottish people with their sense of ‘Scottishness’. Share your thoughts with your group and narrow down everyone’s choices to three key things.
   

b) There are many Scots who support Scotland becoming independent. However, there are also many Scots who wish to remain part of Britain. In your groups try to identify (at least) one argument or issue that would prevent Scotland becoming independent. For example, Scotland has been part of Britain for 300 years; why change now? For this task you must stand and deliver- only sit down when you are confident that anyone in the group can give feedback on the reason(s) you have chosen.

2. 
   Using the evidence on page 102 copy and complete this table. This will be reviewed as a class.
   

Influence	Encouraging unification?	Discouraging unification?
Napoleon
The allies

Task

Read pages 102-105

1. 
   
   1. 
      Role of the Bund
      
   
   

Napoleon made fundamental and lasting changes when he redrew the map of Germany. However, after the defeat of Napoleon, the other European powers made strenuous efforts to reverse any of these trends which threatened their positions. Thus, they created the German Confederation with the autocratic princes ruling the 39 individual states.

These leaders of the 39 states that made up the German Confederation, met to discuss issues which affected the German states and this is known as ‘the bund’.

Whilst it could be argued that this collection of states was now a much more united body that what existed previously, ultimately it has actually been labelled as an entity that prevented proper political unification, rather than one to promote it. The structure of the Bund was a problem, as decisions had to be unanimous (i.e. every single member had to agree before any action could be taken) and therefore it was difficult for them to take action on issues. This meant that if any suggestions of unifications were considered, every member would have to agree on it, in order for it to pass through. Due to vested interests of the individual state leaders, this meant that it was extremely difficult to pass measures that would result in a unified Germany.

Further to this, catholic Austria was given the chairmanship of the Bund. As Austria was vehemently against German unification, this presented another barrier to the unification of Germany.

3. 
   Copy Ian Mitchell’s quote on page 102.
   

What reasons can you find on page 103 to demonstrate why Mitchell reached this conclusion?


2. Religious divisions

The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) was a series of wars principally fought in Central Europe, involving most of the countries of Europe. It was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history, and one of the longest continuous wars in modern history. Religion was a motivation for war as Protestant and Catholic states fought. The result was that states of central Europe, and particularly the Germanic states, were carved up and divided by religion. The north was protestant whereas the south was mainly catholic.

This meant that when questions of unification were raised, years later, the states were divided by religion and found it difficult to cooperate.

The loyalty of the protestant northern German states was to protestant Prussia and the loyalty of the Catholic southern German states was to catholic Austria. Thus, it was more than just religion that divided the German states. The tension and rivalry that existed between the two largest German states exacerbated the existing religious divisions and made the possibility of unification more problematic.

An indication of how strong the traditional cultural and religious ties between the southern Catholic states and Austria were came in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War. Many of the southern states fought with Austria, despite being members of the Prussian-led Zollverein.

4. 
   Why was religion an obstacle to the creation of a united Germany?