Grimm's law and verner's law

2.1. Consonant changes in the history of E.
In OE there were no affricates and no sibilants(∫, t∫, З dЗ) except( s,z). in all Ger. lang. at an early stage of their independent history most consonants were lengthened after a short vowel before [j] – the process is known as West Germanic “doubling” of consonants satjan – settan(bedd, mann) these long consonants disappeared in ME and the phonemic opposition was lost. English consonants were more stable than vowels. The sonorous( m, n, l), the plosives( p, b, t, d) & k, g in most positions haven’t been subjected to any noticeable changes. {З}appeared on the boundary between the OE & the ME, came from French & is the youngest consonant. We evidence palatalisation( softening of the back lingual consonants) – kild, scip, sceal; elision –dropping, omitting of a letter: G Gans – OE Зos, G uns – OE us, mæjden – mæden(maiden). In the ME the sound [w] was lost: hwa – who, hwom – whom; [h] disappeared in combinations with initial hl( half –laf(loaf)), hr(hra∂e – rather), kn is pronounced as n – knight,cnawan( know). At the beginning of the NE period the sound [r] disappeared in the final position or before consonants as a result the preceding vowel lengthened – ME a – NE a: bar, star, car; o – o: door, lord; a: - eə care, dare; o: - uə poor, moor. In the 17^th – 18^th words with h that was denoted by the gh combination, the sound h disappeared & lengthened the preceding vowel – bought, thought. In OE we have metathese( permutation, the process of interchanging sounds in a word, as in rinnan – irnan(run), ascian – axian(ask) & we have assimilation wif-man – wimman. In the loan-words of Roman origin adopted in the ME & the ENE the stress fell on the final syllable & was moved closer to the beginning of the word & the changes happened due to the reciprocal assimilation. In the OE f,v,s,z,∂,Ө were allophones – in intervocal position appeared as voiced, otherwise were voiceless. In the ME they became independent.- ris[s] – risan[z]. [j] &[y] developed into [i] & [u] respectively; [x’] [x] developed into [i] & [u] respectively& formed glides of diphtongs or lengthened the preceding vowel – ^OEniht – ^MEnight – ^LMEni:t - ^NEnait.in final position x changed into f ^MErough( ru:x) - ^NErough. In final position and before consonants j & r changed into vowels but in initial retained the same rechen – reach, yeer – year.in the 16^th a new vowel appeared [ɔ:] in the following cases: i+r- fir,sir; u+r - fur,burn; o+r after w worm; e+r – fern.
10. I –mutation ++Long vowels proved to be more changeable than short ones. The most important change was umlaut or palatal mutation. Mutation is a change in a vowel sound brought by a sound in the following syllable. The mutation of a root back or open vowel to a front one by a following i or j is called i-mutation. I –mutation affected all the Germanic languages but Gothic. OE stressed vowels changed into back or more narrow under the influence of i (j) in the next syllables (regressive assimilation). The result was the rise of the new phonemes y, y: but disappeared in early ME.⁵
ǎ > e sandian – sendan(send)
æ>e sætian – settan(set)
ā > æ hālian – hælan (heal)
ü > y fullian – fyllan (fill)
ō > ē wopian – wepan (weep), dohtor – dehter (daughter)
The approximate date of the change was the 5-6^th c. They are not many in English and can be find both in word changing and word formation: man-men, louse-lice, old-elder; full-fill, stong-strength, tale-tell, food-feed.