Гос экзамен саволлари методикадан

ГОС ЭКЗАМЕН САВОЛЛАРИ МЕТОДИКАДАН

1. 
   Theoretical backgrounds of teaching foreign language methodology
   
2. 
   Jigsaw Methods in teaching foreign language methodology
   

The jigsaw technique is a method of organizing classroom activity that makes students dependent on each other to succeed. It breaks classes into groups that each assemble a piece of an assignment and synthesize their work when finished. It was designed by social psychologist Elliot Aronson to help weaken racial cliques in forcibly integrated schools.[1][2][3] A study by John Hattie found that the jigsaw method benefits students' learning.[4]


The technique splits classes into mixed groups to work on small problems that the group collates into a final outcome.[1] For example, an in-class assignment is divided into topics. Students are then split into groups with one member assigned to each topic. Working individually, each student learns about their topic and presents it to their group. Next, students gather into groups divided by topic. Each member presents again to the topic group. In same-topic groups, students reconcile points of view and synthesize information. They create a final report. Finally, the original groups reconvene and listen to presentations from each member. The final presentations provide all group members with an understanding of their own material, as well as the findings that have emerged from topic-specific group discussion.


The jigsaw technique is a cooperative learning method that brings about both individual accountability and achievement of the team goals.[5] The process derives its name from the jigsaw puzzle because it involves putting the parts of the assignment together to form a whole picture.[6] The assignment is divided into parts and the class is also divided into the same number of groups as that of the assignment.[2] Each of these group is given a different topic and allowed to learn about it. These groups are shuffled to form new groups consisting of members from each group

3. 
   Cinquian method
   

The first line is a single word that is the subject and title of the poem. The second line is two adjectives that describe the word in the first line. The third line has three words that do one of two things. They either tell more about the subject of the poem or they show action.The Rules of a Cinquain

Cinquains are five lines long. They have 2 syllables in the first line, 4 in the second, 6 in the third, 8 in the fourth line, and just 2 in the last line. Cinquains do not need to rhyme, but you can include rhymes if you want to.

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Cinquain
Learn what a cinquain poem is with helpful examples. Ideal for parents and teachers preparing to help children learn this poetry in primary school.
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What is a cinquain poem?

A cinquain poem is a type of poem classified by the number of syllables each line in the poem has. It was created by an American poet, Adelaide Crapsey, in the early twentieth century.

The poem typically consists of five lines, using the following structure:

Line 1: 2 syllables.

Line 2: 4 syllables.
Line 3: 6 syllables.
Line 4: 8 syllables.
Line 5: 2 syllables.

And is read aloud using the following emphasis on each line:

Line 1: one stress.

Line 2: two stresses.
Line 3: three stresses.
Line 4: four tresses.
Line 5: one stress.
Cinquain is pronounced Sin-Kane.
What are the different types of cinquain poems?
Didactic Cinquain
Didactic cinquain poems are popularly used in primary schools when introducing cinquain poems to children. Instead of using syllables and stresses, this type of cinquain poem uses words.

Line 1: One word - The title of the poem.

Line 2: Two words - Adjectives that describe the title.
Line 3: Three words - Usually action words, ending in 'ing'. Tells the reader more about the subject.
Line 4: Four words - Show emotions about the subject.
Line 5: One word - A synonym of the title.
Reverse Cinquain
This is a cinquain with the traditional syllable pattern reversed.

Line 1: 2 syllables.

Line 2: 8 syllables.
Line 3: 6 syllables.
Line 4: 4 syllables.
Line 5: 2 syllables.

Mirror Cinquain

This is a 10-line poem that consists of the original cinquain followed by a reverse cinquain.

Line 1: 2 syllables.

Line 2: 4 syllables.
Line 3: 6 syllables.
Line 4: 8 syllables.
Line 5: 2 syllables.

Line 6: 2 syllables.

Line 7: 8 syllables.
Line 8: 6 syllables.
Line 9: 4 syllables.
Line 10: 2 syllables.
Butterfly Cinquain
This is a 9-line poem where the last line of the original cinquain is merged with the first line of a reverse cinquain.

Line 1: 2 syllables.

Line 2: 4 syllables.
Line 3: 6 syllables.
Line 4: 8 syllables.
Line 5: 2 syllables.
Line 6: 8 syllables.
Line 7: 6 syllables.
Line 8: 4 syllables.
Line 9: 2 syllables.
Crown Cinquain
A sequence of five cinquains used to construct one large 25-line poem.
Garland Cinquain
A series of six cinquains, where the last is constructed of lines from the first five.

Line 1: Line one from stanza one.

Line 2: Line two from stanza two.
Line 3: Line three from stanza three.
Line 4: Line four from stanza four.
Line 5: Line five from stanza five.
1. Think of your topic.
Just like with any other poem, before writing a cinquain, you need to think of what you're going to write about. You could choose anything. For example, you could write about:

your favourite food;

your least favourite food;
your favourite animal;
your best friend;
your favourite season.
When writing your first cinquain, it can be helpful to choose an object or subject that has only two syllables, so that this can form the first line of your poem.

If it has one syllable, you can add 'my' or 'the' to it to make it two. For example, if you were writing about your dog, you could start with 'My dog'.

For this example, we're going to write a cinquain about 'otters' (handy, because the word has two syllables!).

4. 
   How to Teach Speaking
   

Getting your beginner level students to speak seems to be a mission only if you haven’t got a clue of how to teach speaking English to beginners. Method is king. In this article you are going to learn the basic steps for walking your beginner students through their first approach to speaking a foreign language.

Teaching speaking skills to intermediate or advanced language students is relatively easy. Many teachers may get stuck when it comes to planning lessons aiming at getting their students to speak, where the students are beginners.

The truth is that many language teachers take it for granted their beginner students can’t actually take part in a conversation because of the lack in vocabulary and knowledge of the grammar. Well, that is a myth.

In my teaching practice, I get beginner level students (as well as complete beginner level students) to speak from the very first lesson. I can guarantee I’m not a magician! Ah-ah-ah J On the contrary, I stick to a precise method and I keep on practising it with as many students as possible.

In this article I want to share with you the essential aspects of that practice, so that you can give it a go with your beginner students. This is based on my experience as a language teacher, specifically as a suggestopedic language teacher. In this sense, Suggestopedia has a lot of tools that can help you to get clear on how to teach speaking English to beginners (English, as well as any other foreign language).

It’s all a matter of bearing in mind what is really central in the communication process. What do you think is it the most important thing in developing speaking skills? To me, the most important thing is delivering a message. That is the true end game.

Delivering a message means communicating something meaningful to someone else in order to get feedback in return.

As a consequence, the priority in your teaching practice with beginners should always be creating tons of opportunities for delivering messages. This means creating the urgency and the need to pass on a message, regardless of the content.

Now, when you work with beginners and complete beginners, the core topics in the lessons are usually related to being able to talk about oneself: who are you? Where are you from? Your family? What do you like and dislike? And so on. Therefore, with beginners the priority will be to create as many opportunities as possible to talk about those topics.

By “as many opportunity as possible” I mean that you would be supposed to get the students into the conversation from the very first lesson, regardless of their previous knowledge of the target language. Remember: communicating in a foreign language means delivering a message by using any means. The means can be: words students already know, body language and gestures, pictures and drawings. Really, anything.

For example, in my suggestopedic Italian courses for beginners I do a specific activity called introduction. That is the very first part of the suggestopedic courses. There I have a conversation with my students, where I speak Italian right away and I constantly invite them to give me feedback, to answer, to talk, depending on the specific previous knowledge of each student. Also, I use a lot of props and visuals (pictures, objects) to show the things I’m talking about. So, for instance: if I’m talking about my family, I show them a picture of my family so that they can link the nouns belonging to that conversational topic to real pictures. The key strategies are the following ones:

Bearing in mind what the end game is: delivering a message

Encouraging the students to speak and to take part in conversations from the very beginning of your courses
Creating as many opportunities as possible for speaking: students ought to get CONSTANTLY involved in activities that create the urgency for delivering a message and interacting with others
Using a lot of visuals and props as a concrete support
Communicating through your body language, along with the words you speak
Speaking the target language only, switching to the students’ language only when needed (the goal is to getting them used to the target language without generating stress!).
That is all you need to implement while you learn how to teach speaking English to beginners

5. 
   Case Study in teaching foreign language methodology
   

Many students learn better from examples than from logical

development starting with basic principles. The use of case studies can

therefore be a very effective classroom technique. The case study method is

an active learning method, which requires participation and involvement

from students in the classroom. The method of case-study provides students

with an excellent opportunity to apply creatively the language material on

the basis of their professional knowledge and allow them to adapt

themselves to the real-life situations.

The case method combines two elements: the case itself and the

discussion of that case. Cases provide a rich contextual way to introduce

new material and create opportunities for students to apply the material

they have just learned. Effective cases are usually based on real events, but

can be drawn from both the present and the past. A decision-maker faced

with the situation described in a case can choose between several

alternative courses of his action, and each of these alternatives may be

supported by a logical argument. During the classroom discussion students

carry out analytical work of explaining the relationships among events in

the case, identify options, evaluate choices and predict the effects of

actions.

Cases could be different in volume and content. It depends on the aims

of teaching foreign languages, the level of students, as well the type of

required help in the process of making the decision. Therefore, cases

relatively can be divided into following types:

1. Scientific research, which is oriented at accomplishing research

activity;

2. Practical, which reflects real life situations;

3. Educational, the task of which is organizing educational process.

Scientific research case study acts as a model for getting advanced

knowledge of a situation and action in it. Its educational function comes

down to scientific research teaching skills by the help of modeling

approach. Practical case study sets up a problem of a detail life situation

reflection. Therefore this case creates a practical case model. Educational

task of practical case comes down to a training of vocabulary and grammar

learned before, practicing and decision making in a particular language

situation. Educational case reflects typical language situations, which are

appearing in a real life more frequently. Students are more possible to come

across with such situations in their professional life. Furthermore, training

and educational tasks are placed on the first place.

There are numerous advantages to use cases while teaching foreign

languages. Study cases help to develop and raise critical thinking and

reflective learning of the learner; develop problem solving skills; improve

the student’s organizational skills; enhance communication skills; train

managerial communication skills; encourage collaborative learning and

team-working skills; connect theory and practice; get students to be active,

not passive.

The case study method usually involves three stages: individual

preparation; small group discussion; large group or class discussion.

Case studies are usually discussed in class, in a large group. However,

sometimes, teachers may require individuals or groups of students to

provide a written analysis of a case study, or make an oral presentation on

the case study in the classroom. It is extremely important that the case studies are well prepared in

advance so that each student knows what his role is. There are many ways

of introducing the case study to your students. Here is a list of steps that

should be completed during the case study introduction class:

1) Read the case study thoroughly with your students. Here you can

deal with any lexical or grammatical issues. You may also like to ask your

students to represent the background information in a visual form.

2) Provide the students with some input on how they should analyze

the case study.

3) Pre-teach the language required to discuss the case study. There are

many publications for teaching meeting skills, presentation skills or

negotiation skills. It is important to select the skill you would like to focus

on and teach the specific language.

A classroom case discussion is usually guided by the supervisor.

Students are expected to participate in the discussion and present their

views. The interaction among students, and between the students and the

teacher, must take place in a constructive and positive manner. Such

interactions help to improve the analytical, communication, and

interpersonal skills of the students.

To sum up the above information we can state that the power of the

case method lies in the active participation of the students. In case learning,

students encounter the problem before they create the structure to solve it.

The method is basically inductive and experiential.

6. 
   How to Teach Listening
   

Listening in a second language is so much more than simply understanding what someone is saying. We listen to different people in different ways depending on how, where and when we are interacting, or whether we are interacting at all.

In the field of ESOL, learners typically listen to three different sources of information in their lessons: the teacher, each other and, most commonly, an audio recording of one or two people speaking.

As teachers looking to develop the complicated range of communicative skills involved in listening, we have to consider several factors related to the message we are asking our students to listen to, the medium through which it is being delivered and the methodologies we can use to lead our students through this potentially daunting task.

Bringing listening into the classroom, we have to remember that our learners are performing this work in a second language; this means that there is automatically more strain on their listening brains, more language work to be done, and often confidence issues in weaker listeners as the message flies past from the speakers.

These important considerations mean that we have to scaffold listening activity in most situations where students will be hearing something for the first time (unless they are in a test setting, in which case the test is how they deal with the lack of support).

Pre-listening stages are crucial to the development of good habits while listening activity takes place.Some ideas for pre-listening tasks are:

Pre-teach any vocabulary that you predict will be new or particularly challenging for the learners in your group. Reducing vocabulary confusion, and the time that that takes away from other considerations about the message itself, will leave students with more headspace to focus on the task at hand.

Make sure that your learners are familiarised with the people who they will hear, the setting in which they appear, and the genre of the audio recording (is it a news broadcast, a casual conversation or an argument? This will give students some context into which to set the recording when it starts.
Set a clear task for students to perform before you hit ‘play’. This will give further expectations about the information they hear, and makes the listening that they undertake much more purposeful. If they know the type of information to listen out for, their performance during the task will be much higher, and confidence (a key aspect of listening in a second language) will be further raised.Most listening activity focuses on comprehension: recognising factual information from a speaker or speakers.

However, this may not fully prepare students to listen spontaneously to a range of different spoken media, or as an active participant in interaction in English. Go beyond facts and figures and ask more contextual questions about the setting, the speakers’ emotions and their reasons for saying certain things.

7. 
   Venn Diagrams
   

A Venn diagram is a widely used diagram style that shows the logical relation between sets, popularized by John Venn in the 1880s. The diagrams are used to teach elementary set theory, and to illustrate simple set relationships in probability, logic, statistics, linguistics and computer science.
A Venn diagram is an illustration that uses circles to show the relationships among things or finite groups of things. Circles that overlap have a commonality while circles that do not overlap do not share those traits.

Venn diagrams help to visually represent the similarities and differences between two concepts. They have long been recognized for their usefulness as educational tools. Since the mid-20th century, Venn diagrams have been used as part of the introductory logic curriculum and in elementary-level educational plans around the world. Understanding the Venn Diagram

The English logician John Venn popularized the diagram in the 1880s. He called them Eulerian circles after the Swiss mathematician Leonard Euler, who created similar diagrams in the 1700s. The term Venn diagram did not appear until 1918 when Clarence Lewis, an American academic philosopher and the eventual founder of conceptual pragmatism, referred to the circular depiction as the Venn diagram in his book "A Survey of Symbolic Logic." Venn studied and taught logic and probability theory at Cambridge University, where he developed his method of using diagrams to illustrate the branch of mathematics known as set theory.

Venn published a precedent-setting work, "The Logic of Chance," which explained the frequency theory of probability. In it, he argued that probability, contrary to popular assumption, should be established based on the regularity with which something is predicted to occur. Venn diagrams are used to depict how items relate to each other against an overall backdrop, universe, data set, or environment. A Venn diagram could be used, for example, to compare two companies within the same industry by illustrating the products both companies offer (where circles overlap) and the products that are exclusive to each company (outer circles).

Venn diagrams are, at a basic level, simple pictorial representations of the relationship that exists between two sets of things. However, they can be much more complex. Still, the streamlined purpose of the Venn diagram to illustrate concepts and groups has led to their popularized use in many fields, including statistics, linguistics, logic, education, computer science, and business.

Examples of Venn Diagrams

A Venn diagram could be drawn to illustrate fruits that come in red or orange colors. Below, we can see that there are orange fruits (circle B) such as persimmons and tangerines while apples and cherries (circle A) come in red colors. Peppers and tomatoes come in both red and orange colors, as represented by the overlapping area of the two circles.

8. 
   Aims and Principles of teaching foreign language methodology
   

It is a common knowledge that there are lots of languages in the world, and some of them fall into the category of international languages or languages of wider communication groups, such as English; French, German, Spanish, Russian, Italian and Arabic. All these languages are the official languages of the UN.

English language is very important nowadays. More and more people need English to attend universities and colleges, because now we have an opportunity to get higher education abroad. New ideas in science and medicine happen so quickly that it is impossible to translate everything into different languages. Most articles are published in English. English is the language of international communication in many areas of life: trade, air and sea transport, tourism and sport. Ukraine is establishing closer economic, politi­cal, scientific, and cultural relations with various peoples of the world. International relations are extended and strength­ened through the exchange of scientific, technical, and cultural information. In this situation foreign language teaching is a matter of state significance.

In modern society language is used in two ways: directly or orally, and indirectly or in written form. Thus we distin­guish oral language and written language. Direct communi­cation implies a speaker and a hearer, indirect communica­tion implies a writer and a reader. Hence the practical aims in teaching a foreign language are four in number: hearing, speaking, reading, and writing.

Aims are the first and most important consideration in any teaching. Hence the teacher should know exactly what his pupils are expected to achieve in learning his subject, what changes he can bring about in his pupils at the end of the course, at the end of the year, term, month, week, and each particular lesson, he should know the aims and objectives of foreign language teaching. The changes the teacher must bring about in his pupils may be threefold: practical —pupils acquire habits and skills in using a foreign language; educational — they develop their mental abilities and intelligence in the process of learning the foreign language; сultural — pupils extend their knowledge of the world in which they live. Therefore there are three aims, at least, which should be achieved in foreign language teaching: prac­tical, educational, and cultural.

Practical aims. The foreign language as a subject differs from other subjects of the school curriculum. Whereas the teaching, for instance, of history is mostly connected with the imparting of historical laws and facts which pupils are to learn and the teaching of the mother tongue leads to the mastery of the language as a system (which is already used for exchanging thoughts and feelings) so that pupils will be able to use it more effectively in oral and writ­ten language, the teaching of a foreign language should re­sult in the pupil's gaining one more code for receiving and conveying information; that is, in acquiring a second lan­guage for the same purpose as the native language: to use it as a means of communication.

The nature of the language should also be taken into consid­eration in determining the aims of language teaching. Learn­ing a living language implies using the language of sounds, that is, speaking. Scientific research gives a more profound insight into the problem. It is not so much the ability to speak that is meant here but rather the oral treatment; in other words, the language of sounds, not of graphic signs (which is usually the case when a dead language is studied) should serve as basic means of teaching.

The length of the course, the frequency of the lessons, the size of groups should also be taken into consideration in adopt­ing practical aims. The amount of time for language learning is one of the most decisive factors in mastering and maintain­ing language proficiency since learners need practice. The more time is available for pupils' practice in the target lan­guage, the better results can be achieved. Moreover, for the formation of speech habits frequency of lessons is a more es­sential condition than the length of the course. It is not necessary to prove (it has already been proved) that intensive courses are more effective than extensive ones, for example, six periods a week for three years are more effective for lan­guage learning than three periods a week for six years.

In foreign language learning all forms of work must be in close interrelation, otherwise it is impossible to master the language. However, attention should be given mainly to prac­tice in hearing, speaking, and reading. Thus pupils must achieve a level in their knowledge of the language which will enable them to further develop it at an institute or in their practical work. The achievement of practical aims in foreign language teaching makes possible the achievement of educational and cultural aims.

Educational aims. Learning a foreign language is of great educational value. Through a new language we can gain an insight into the way in which words express thoughts, and so achieve greater clarity and precision in our own communi­cations. Even at the most elementary level learning a foreign language teaches the cognizance of meaning, furnishes a term of comparison that gives us an insight into the quality of language. When learning a foreign language the pupil understands better how language functions and this brings him to a greater awareness of the functioning of his own language.

Since language is connected with thinking, through foreign language study we can develop the pupil's intellect. Teaching a foreign language helps the teacher develop the pupils' voluntary and involuntary memory, his imaginative abili­ties, and will power. Indeed, in learning a new language the pupil should memorize words, idioms, sentence patterns, structures, and keep them in long-term memory ready to be used whenever he needs them in auding, speaking, reading, and writing. Teaching a foreign language under conditions when this is the only foreign language environment, is practi­cally impossible without appealing to pupils’ imagination. The lack of real communication forces the teacher to create imaginary situations for pupils, to speak about making each pupil determine his language behaviour as if he were in such situations.

Teaching a foreign language contributes to the linguistic education of the pupil, the latter extends his knowledge of phonic, graphic, structural, and semantic aspects of language through contrastive analysis of language phenomena. In teaching a foreign language the teacher is called upon to inculcate in pupils the scientific outlook, to prepare the young people for an active partici­pation in production and other types of useful activ­ities.

Teachers of foreign languages make their contribution to the education of pupils, to their ideological education. Their role in the upbringing of the younger generation cannot be overestimated.

Cultural aims. Learning a foreign language makes the pupil acquainted with the life, customs and traditions of the people whose language he studies through visual material (such as post cards with the views of towns, countryside, and people; filmstrips, for example, "Great Britain", "What Tour­ists Can See in London", "Disney Land" films) and reading material dealing with the countries where the target language is spoken. Foreign language teaching should promote puipls' general educational and cultural growth by increasing their knowledge about foreign countries, and by acquainting them with progressive traditions of the people whose language they study. Through learning a foreign language the pupil gains a deeper insight into the nature and functioning of language as a social phenomenon.

It should be said that practical, educational, and cultural aims are intimately related and form an insepa­rable unity. The leading role belongs to practical aims, for the others can only be achieved through the practical com­mand of the foreign language. But to achieve any aim it is necessary to remember about the Methods of teaching. Methods of foreign language teaching is understood as a body of scientifically tested theory concerning the teach­ing of foreign languages in educational institutions. It covers three main problems as: content of teaching, i. e. what to teach to attain the aims; methods and techniques of teaching, i. e. how to teach a foreign language to attain the aims in the most ef­fective way to meet modern requirements.

9. 
   Jigsaw Reading
   

Jigsaw is a cooperative learning strategy that enables each student of a "home" group to specialize in one aspect of a topic (for example, one group studies habitats of rainforest animals, another group studies predators of rainforest animals). Students meet with members from other groups who are assigned the same aspect, and after mastering the material, return to the "home" group and teach the material to their group members. With this strategy, each student in the "home" group serves as a piece of the topic's puzzle and when they work together as a whole, they create the complete jigsaw puzzle.
It helps build comprehension.
It encourages cooperative learning among students.
It helps improve listening, communication, and problem-solving skills.
Introduce the strategy and the topic to be studied.
Assign each student to a "home group" of 3-5 students who reflect a range of reading abilities.
Determine a set of reading selections and assign one selection to each student.
Create "expert groups" that consist of students across "home groups" who will read the same selection.
Give all students a framework for managing their time on the various parts of the jigsaw task.
Provide key questions to help the "expert groups" gather information in their particular area.
Provide materials and resources necessary for all students to learn about their topics and become "experts."

Note: It is important that the reading material assigned is at appropriate instructional levels (90–95% reading accuracy).

Discuss the rules for reconvening into "home groups" and provide guidelines as each "expert" reports the information learned.
Prepare a summary chart or graphic organizer for each "home group" as a guide for organizing the experts' information report.
Remind students that "home group" members are responsible to learn all content from one another.
Differentiated instruction
For second language learners, students of varying reading skill, students with learning disabilities, and younger learners
Give students experience with small group learning skills before participating in the jigsaw strategy.
Have students fill out a graphic organizer in the "home group" to gather all the information presented by each "expert."
"Home groups" can present results to the entire class, or they may participate in some assessment activity.
Circulate to ensure that groups are on task and managing their work well; ask groups to stop and think about how they are checking for everyone's understanding and ensuring that everyone's voice is heard; and
Monitor the comprehension of the group members by asking questions and rephrasing information until it is clear that all group members understand the points.

10. 
    Approaches to teaching foreign language methodology
    

For the longest time, this was also the approach used for teaching modern foreign languages. An instructor in a teacher-centered classroom would explain a grammatical rule in the native language, translation exercises would follow, perhaps preceded by some fill-in-the-blank or verb conjugation or noun declension work. Speaking, when it occurred, was in the context of completing these exercises orally and might consist of only a word or a phrase. There was no attempt at “real” communication.

How might a grammar-translation classroom be set up? You give your students a brief passage in the target language; you provide some new vocabulary and give your students time to try to translate the passage. There would be some new material included in the passage, perhaps a new case, a new verb tense or a more complex grammatical construction. You explain the material to your students as you work through the passage with them. After, you give your students a series of translation sentences or a brief paragraph in the native language, and they translate it into the target language for homework.

Direct
The direct method, also known as the natural approach, is in many ways the opposite of the grammar-translation method. In this classroom, the native language is strictly forbidden, and grammar (grammatical explanation) is de-emphasized in favor of induction, where students are supposed to figure out rules for themselves. Students are encouraged to speak at all times, making this the ultimate in student-centered classrooms.

In theory, students would learn the foreign language naturally, as they learned their native language as a child, and automatic responses to questions would become instinctive. The focus would always be on natural language, and habit formation was the key to learning. When students made mistakes, teachers would gently correct them. When they used the language correctly, they were praised. In this way, students were supposed to be able to determine a grammatical rule for themselves.

While the ideas were interesting, in practice this was a short-lived theory due to the proven lack of success of teaching L2 grammar through induction and schools not being able to provide a fully immersed environment.

What might a direct method or natural approach activity be? It could be as simple as a teacher asking questions, with the students answering, either followed by correction or praise. It could be an instructor reading a passage aloud, giving it to her students, and then having them read it aloud, so that through repetition and correction, students would understand in the same way that children learn patterns through having their parents read to them. Or it could be asking students to write a paragraph in their own words, again with correction or praise to follow.

Audio-lingual

The theory behind audio-lingualism is that language learning requires learning habits. Repetition is the mother of all learning. This methodology emphasizes drill work in order to make answers to questions instinctive and automatic. New forms are first heard by students, with written forms coming only after extensive drilling. The language used for these drills is based on what is required for practicing the specific form; it might or might not be natural.

An example of an audio-lingual activity is a substitution drill. The instructor might start with a basic sentence, such as “I see the ball,” after which she holds up a series of pictures through which students substitute “ball” with each new picture. Another possibility is a transformation drill, where the instructor says, “I read a book,” which the students change into, “I don’t read a book.”

Immersion

Full Immersion is difficult to achieve in a foreign language classroom, unless you are teaching that foreign language in the country where the language is spoken, and your students are studying all topics in the target language. This would mean your students are truly immersed in the language as well as the culture for twenty-four hours a day.

For example, ESL students have an immersion experience if they are studying in an Anglophone country. In additional to studying English, they either work or study other subjects in English for a complete experience. Attempts at this methodology can be seen in foreign language immersion schools, which are becoming popular in certain school districts in the United States, and in bilingual education settings. The challenge with the former structure is that, as soon as the student leaves the school setting, he or she is once again surrounded by the native language.

An incredible way to help bring language immersion both to your classroom and to your students outside of school is with FluentU‘s online immersion program.

FluentU takes authentic videos—like music videos, movie trailers, news and inspiring talks—and turns them into personalized language lessons.

Every word is carefully annotated so that learners have plenty of support (if they need it). You can even click on a word to see how it’s used in other videos across the site. Perhaps the most interesting part of FluentU is its “learn mode,” which takes videos and turns them into language learning lessons. The lessons are fully personalized, so the student’s learning history is taken into account when presenting questions. FluentU’s algorithm sets students up for success by teaching them based on what they already know.

Total Physical Response (TPR)

Total physical response, or TPR, emphasizes aural comprehension. For example, students are trained to respond to simple commands: stand up, sit down, close the door, open your book, etc. This first step can later be expanded to storytelling, where students act out actions described in an oral narrative, thus demonstrating their comprehension of the language.

The quintessential TPR activity still used in modern foreign language classrooms today is Simon Says.

Communicative

The communicative approach is the most widely used and most widely accepted approach to classroom-based foreign language teaching today, and in many ways, is a culmination of those approaches and methodologies that appeared before.

It emphasizes the learner’s ability to communicate various functions, such as asking and answering questions, making requests, describing, narrating and comparing. Task assignment and problem solving—two key components of critical thinking—are the means through which the communicative approach operates.

Unlike the direct method, grammar is not taught in isolation. Learning happens in context; detailed error correction is de-emphasized in favor of the theory that students will naturally develop accurate speech through frequent use. Students develop fluency through communicating in the language rather than by analyzing it.

A communicative classroom includes activities through which students are able to work out a problem or situation through narration or negotiation, and thus establish communicative competence. Thus some activities might include composing a dialogue in which the participants negotiate when and where they are going to eat dinner, creating a story based on a series of pictures or comparing similarities and differences between two pictures.

Task-based Learning

Task-based learning, a refinement of the communicative approach, focuses on the completion of specific tasks through which language is taught and learned. Language learners use the language that they know to complete a variety of assignments, acquiring new structures, forms and vocabulary as necessary.

Little error correction is provided. In this type of learning environment, three- to four-week segments are devoted to a specific topic: ecology, security, medicine, religion, youth culture, etc. Students learn about a specific topic, step-by-step, using a variety of resources, with each unit culminating in a final project such as a written report or presentation.

Activities are similar to those found in a communicative classroom, but they are always based around a single, specific theme.Reading Method — Sometimes graduate students or researchers will only need to learn how to read scholarly articles in a language, so they learn through the Reading Method, where enough grammar is taught to make it through a standard article in their field. Students do not work on speaking or listening comprehension; rather, they concentrate on building up a large reservoir of specialized vocabulary.

There are also a number of lesser-used and lesser-accepted methodologies, including:

Suggestopedia, where the learning environment is made as relaxed as possible so students’ brain are able to soak up language.

Community Language Learning, where the instructor serves as a counselor rather than as an instructor.
Language analysis/awareness, a retrograde approach that concentrates on analyzing language data sets instead of actively using language in the classroom

11. 
    Cluster
    

Cluster analysis or clustering is the task of grouping a set of objects in such a way that objects in the same group (called a cluster) are more similar (in some sense) to each other than to those in other groups (clusters). It is a main task of exploratory data analysis, and a common technique for statistical data analysis, used in many fields, including pattern recognition, image analysis, information retrieval, bioinformatics, data compression, computer graphics and machine learning. Cluster analysis itself is not one specific algorithm, but the general task to be solved. It can be achieved by various algorithms that differ significantly in their understanding of what constitutes a cluster and how to efficiently find them. Popular notions of clusters include groups with small distances between cluster members, dense areas of the data space, intervals or particular statistical distributions. Clustering can therefore be formulated as a multi-objective optimization problem. The appropriate clustering algorithm and parameter settings (including parameters such as the distance function to use, a density threshold or the number of expected clusters) depend on the individual data set and intended use of the results. Cluster analysis as such is not an automatic task, but an iterative process of knowledge discovery or interactive multi-objective optimization that involves trial and failure. It is often necessary to modify data preprocessing and model parameters until the result achieves the desired properties.

Besides the term clustering, there are a number of terms with similar meanings, including automatic classification, numerical taxonomy, botryology (from Greek βότρυς "grape"), typological analysis, and community detection. The subtle differences are often in the use of the results: while in data mining, the resulting groups are the matter of interest, in automatic classification the resulting discriminative power is of interest.

Cluster analysis was originated in anthropology by Driver and Kroeber in 1932[1] and introduced to psychology by Joseph Zubin in 1938[2] and Robert Tryon in 1939[3] and famously used by Cattell beginning in 1943[4] for trait theory classification in personality psychology.

Clustering methods are used to identify groups of similar objects in a multivariate data sets collected from fields such as marketing, bio-medical and geo-spatial. They are different types of clustering methods, including:

Partitioning methods

Hierarchical clustering
Fuzzy clustering
Density-based clustering
Model-based clustering

12. 
    Project in teaching foreign language methodology
    

In recent years, the issue of the application of modern technologies in high school is becoming increasingly important. It is not only new hardware, but new forms and methods of teaching, new approaches to teaching foreign languages. The main goal is to show how technology can be used effectively in order to improve the quality of teaching foreign language, the formation and development of students’ communicative culture, training practical mastery of a foreign language.

The teacher's tasks are to create the conditions for practical language learning for each student, to choose such methods of teaching that would enable every student to show their activity, their creativity, to increase students' cognitive activity in learning foreign languages. The use of modern tools such as computer programs, Internet-based technologies, as well as cooperative learning and project technology can solve these problems.

Project method is one of the most pressing contemporary technologies in teaching foreign languages. It combines the elements of problem-based learning and collaborative learning that allows achieving the highest level of mastery of any subject, and foreign language in particular. Project method forms students' communication skills, culture, communication, the ability concisely and audibly formulate thoughts, be tolerant to the opinion of partners in communication and develops the ability to extract information from a variety of sources, to process it with the help of modern technologies. [1, c. 5]All these factors create language environment that - results in the appearance of the natural need to interact in a foreign language.

Project-based learning does not contradict the traditional ways of learning. It helps to activate students since most of them have an interest for new knowledge. Such kind of motivation - the desire to successfully develop theme of the project - is often stronger than the demands of parents and teachers to study hard in order to get excellent and good marks.

The main purpose of the use of this innovative approach is the ability to effectively master students' foreign communicative competence. It includes the following concepts: [6]

verbal competence is creating an opportunity of manifestation of communicative skills in all forms: listening, speaking, writing, reading, translation within a specific topic;

socio-cultural competence is the formation of ideas about the social and cultural specificity of the target language;

linguistic competence is students' acquisition of lexical units relating to the topic as a necessary basis for registration of speaking abilities;

educational and cognitive competence is the improvement of educational activity on mastering of foreign languages;

compensatory competence is formation of skills of overcoming difficult situations in a shortage of linguistic resources.

Also, this approach forms informational competence which manifests the ability to work independently with reference books, find necessary information in various sources, and see links with other branches of knowledge. Moreover, project-based learning contributes to enhancing students' personal confidence, developing a "team spirit" and communication skills; providing a mechanism for critical thinking, the ability to find ways to solve problems and developing students' research skills.

13.Research Methods in teaching foreign language methodology
Research Methods in Language Teaching and Learning provides practical guidance on the primary research methods used in second language teaching, learning, and education. Designed to support researchers and students in language education and learning, this highly accessible book covers a wide range of research methodologies in the context of actual practice to help readers fully understand the process of conducting research.

Organized into three parts, the book covers qualitative studies, quantitative studies, and systematic reviews. Contributions by an international team of distinguished researchers and practitioners explain and demonstrate narrative inquiry, discourse analysis, ethnography, heuristic inquiry, mixed methods, experimental and quasi-experimental studies, and more. Each chapter presents an overview of a method of research, an in-depth description of the research framework or data analysis process, and a meta-analysis of choices made and challenges encountered. Offering invaluable insights and hands-on research knowledge to students and early-career practitioners alike, this book:

Focuses on the research methods, techniques, tools, and practical aspects of performing research

Provides firsthand narratives and case studies to explain the decisions researchers make
Compares the relative strengths and weaknesses of different research methods
Includes real-world examples for each research method and framework to highlight the context of the study
Includes extensive references, further reading suggestions, and end-of-chapter review questions
Part of the Guides to Research Methods in Language and Linguistics series, Research Methods in Language Teaching and Learning is essential reading for students, educators, and researchers in all related fields, including TESOL, second language acquisition, English language teaching, and applied linguistics. Research methods offer authentic ways to elicit useful data based on which informed decisions can be made. With respect to their design and data collection or analysis, research methods are traditionally divided into qualitative and quantitative types, each with its strengths and weaknesses. In response to new theories and technological developments, new methods have evolved as extensions of qualitative or quantitative methods or as combinations of the two with promising features. This article presents an overview of the common methods used in language learning-teaching research.
14.Games in teaching foreign language methodology