Физика -physics

Ҳолат тенгламаси - Equation of state - The macroscopic variables of a thermodynamic system in thermodynamic equilibrium, in which temperature is well defined, can be related to one another through equations of state or characteristic equations. They express the constitutive peculiarities of the material of the system. The equation of state must comply with some thermodynamic constraints, but cannot be derived from the general principles of thermodynamics alone.

	Оддий термодинамик жараёнлар - Commonly considered thermodynamic processes - It is often convenient to study a thermodynamic process in which a single variable, such as temperature, pressure, or volume, etc., is held fixed. Furthermore, it is useful to group these processes into pairs, in which each variable held constant is one member of a conjugate pair. Several commonly studied thermodynamic processes are: Isobaric process: occurs at constant pressure Isochoric process: occurs at constant volume (also called isometric/is volumetric) Isothermal process: occurs at a constant temperature Adiabatic process: occurs without loss or gain of energy as heat Isentropic process: a reversible adiabatic process occurs at constant entropy, but is a fictional idealization. Isenthalpic process: occurs at a constant enthalpy Isolated process: no matter or energy (neither as work nor as heat) is transferred into or out of the system
	Aтом - Atom- The atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons. The electrons of an atom are bound to the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. Likewise, a group of atoms can remain bound to each other by chemical bonds based on the same force, forming a molecule. An atom containing an equal number of protons and electrons is electrically neutral; otherwise it is positively or negatively charged and is known as an Ion. An atom is classified according to the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus: the number of protons determines the chemical element, and the number of neutrons determines the isotope of the element.