132 K.
ABDULLAEV,
NAZAROV
People knew, for example, that anyone named Bakhadurkhan-tura came from the
tura
class, the highest level of officials of the Khan, and that he was to be greeted
first among any group. Conversely, someone named Irgash-kuknori was assumed
to be a reveler and
kuknori (opium-smoker). The social hierarchy was considered
normal. Poor men, called
omi (from the word
omma, or masses), knew their birth
excluded them from politics and made no effort to change this condition. In fact,
most Ferghana residents accepted the established order and made no effort to change
it or to assert their rights. In this respect they differed markedly from the more
egalitarian herding communities, whose members practiced a kind of “nomadic
democracy” and strongly preferred their semi-independence to any state control.
The population density of cities in the Ferghana
Valley was the highest in
Central Asia. Cities were surrounded by villages or
kishlaks and served as points
of exchange for goods, services, information, and cultural values. Ferghana cities
dominated the agrarian periphery, but without causing antagonism. This may be
because the layout of houses and the ways of life of city and village dwellers did
not differ sharply. Most organized neighborhoods (
mahallas) were based on terri-
tory rather than kinship or ethno-confessional heritage, and life within them was
relatively free of state interference.
With little arable land and few jobs, it was imperative for Ferghana Valley resi-
dents to acquire knowledge and skills. Neither the nomadic populations nor the
mountaineers lived under this compulsion to diligence. In so densely- populated
and ethnically diverse a region as the Ferghana Valley, people also understood
that the key to survival was
maslihat (consensus). Most conflicts were resolved
through traditional techniques. Of course, there were conflicts between and within
communities, but ethnic hostility was not among their causes. A poor Kyrgyz could
work in the home of a rich Uzbek but would still be included within the family
circle; the head of the Uzbek family would have felt obligated to take care of the
youth as their own son, provide for his education, train him for a profession, and
marry him off.
These and other circumstances led to the creation of a distinct Ferghana identity
that coexisted with an underlying Muslim selfhood and a weak sense of nationality.
A pronounced conservatism lay at the heart of this Ferghana identity. Beginning
in the late 1920s, residents of the Ferghana Valley, or
fargonachi, no longer felt
themselves to be a single socio-economic and cultural-religious whole. In fact, the
term
fargonachi fell out of use.
23
The delineation of borders from 1924 to 1936
encouraged the residents to view one another through the prism of nationalism.
Hastily drawn borders turned peaceful neighbors into competitors ready to fight over
their “national interests.” At the same time, Ferghana Valley dwellers were reduced
to the status of sub-national groups within the three new Central Asian republics
among which their region had been divided. Uzbeks from Namangan, Andijan, and
Ferghana City now competed with Uzbeks from Tashkent, Samarkand-Dzhizak,
and Khorezm. Tajiks from the Khujand oasis strove
to assert their dominance
in the fight against southern elites in the capital city of Stalinabad (Dushanbe).
THE FERGHANA VALLEY UNDER STALIN 133
Kyrgyz of the Ferghana Valley, meanwhile, now found themselves in competition
with Kyrgyz in the north. All three sectors of the valley had been subordinated to
distant republic capitals.
People of the Ferghana Valley embraced the Soviet identity and separate nation-
alities that had been imposed on them, but these did not replace their older loyalties
to family, class, and territory. Their Ferghana Valley identity preserved its major
features but shrank to a very local community-based on family clans and a jointly-
preserved history. When Ferghana Valley residents moved to the capitals, their
devotion to family and clan, and their territorial community, actually intensified.
Even in Tashkent, Frunze, or Stalinabad, Ferghana natives retained their traditional
mentalities and did not rush to become integrated into their nationalities. Soviet
urban culture proved impotent against the more enduring, natural, and emotionally
rich indigenous attachments.
Meanwhile, Tashkent continued as the cosmopolitan capital of the entire region,
but with a separate “old town” populated by Tashkent Uzbeks. The Tajik capital
of Stalinabad from 1929 to 1953 was a large construction site populated by Rus-
sians and Tajiks from various regions. Frunze, situated in Kyrgyzia’s north, was a
Russian-Soviet city
par excellence, markedly different from the ancient city of Osh,
the southern capital. Migration to these capitals did not turn them into melting pots;
instead they became the scene of struggles for dominance among the sub-national
groups who had moved there.
Overall, Soviet-style modernization did not attain its goal. Soviet rules did not
supersede existing norms. Economic development did not lead to the emergence
of national economies. At best, as with the emancipation of women, there was a
synthesis of the local and the superimposed. In the Ferghana Valley, traditions of
harmonious coexistence among ethnic group faded, while Soviet “nation build-
ing” disrupted historical memory and social continuities. Yet indigenous identity,
grounded on a common culture, mentality, and emotional ties, somehow survived
across the valley.
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