Farmasevtika instituti farmakologiya va klinik farmatsiya kafedrasi

Glycolysis
—Splitting Glucose to Form Pyruvic Acid 
By far the most important means of 
releasing energy from the glucose molecule is initiated by 
glycolysis
. The endproducts of glycolysis 
are the oxidized to provide energy. Glycolysis means splitting of the glucose molecule to form 
two 
moleculesof pyruvic acid
. Glycolysis occurs by 10 successive chemical reactions, shown in Figure 67-
5. Each step is catalyzed by at least one specific protein enzyme. Note that glucose is first converted 
into fructose-1,6-diphosphate and then split into two three-carbonatom molecules, glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate, each of which is then converted through five additional steps into pyruvic acid. 
Formation 
of ATP During Glycolysis. 
Despite the many chemical reactions in the glycolytic series, only a small
Diuretics, Kidney Diseases 
Diuretics and TheirMechanisms of Action 
The many diuretics available for clinical use have different mechanisms of action and, therefore, 
inhibit tubular reabsorption at different sites along the renal nephron.The general classes of diuretics 
and their mechanisms of action are shown in Table 31-1.
Osmotic Diuretics Decrease Water Reabsorptionby Increasing Osmotic Pressure of 
Tubular Fluid 
Large volumes of urine are also formed in certain diseases associated with excess 
solutes that fail to be reabsorbedfrom the tubular fluid. For example, when theblood glucose 
concentration rises to high levels in diabetesmellitus, the increased filtered load of glucose into 
thetubules exceeds their capacity to reabsorb glucose (i.e., exceeds their 
transport maximum 
for 
glucose . 
―Loop‖ Diuretics Decrease Active 
Sodium-Chloride-Potassium Reabsorptionin the Thick Ascending Loop of 
Henle
Furosemide, ethacrynic acid, 
and 
bumetanide 
are powerful diuretics that decrease active 
reabsorption in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle by blocking the 1-sodium, 2-chloride, 1-
potassium co-transporter located in the luminal membrane of the epithelial cells. These ―loop‖ 
diuretics are among the most powerful of the clinically used diuretics.