Facts, basics, statistics, tests

Participants then described the amount of these traits that they
already were exhibiting. In the final step of the experiment, the
amount of emotions experienced were assessed by participants using
a four-point scale.
The results of the experiment were consistent with the ideas put
forth by the self-discrepancy theory. Those individuals that felt their
ideals were not fulfilled—referred to as an actual-ideal discrepancy
—had a higher rate of dejection, and those individuals that were
unsatisfied with their oughts—referred to as actual-ought
discrepancy—had a higher rate of agitation.
COMPLICATIONS
There are several complicating factors to the self-discrepancy theory,
however. The emotions that are the result of self-discrepancies are
dependent upon whether or not the person chose those particular
aspirations by themselves. Higgins claimed that failing to achieve
goals that were imposed by another individual will result in feelings
of embarrassment and shame, not disappointment or dejection.
Similarly, failing to fulfill obligations that were imposed by another
person created feelings of resentment.
In 1998, a study was conducted that challenged the self-
discrepancy theory by proving that any type of discrepancy led to
feelings of shame, and that instead of anxiety, it was actually
feelings of depression that came from actual-ideal and actual-ought
discrepancies. This study was one of several that attempted to
establish alternatives to Higgins’s self-discrepancy model. Several of
the proposed alternatives follow here.
Money on the Mind
For many, the discrepancy between existing wealth, status, and
possessions and desired wealth, status, and possessions is a
constant source of dejection and agitation. While it may be
common to strive to gain more and increase traits, studies have
shown that this does not significantly improve well-being, and

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may actually do the opposite. In several studies, it was
commonly found that while people desired more money than
they currently had, it had no bearing on their emotions and
satisfaction with life, and the discrepancies these people had in
terms of how much money they had and how much money they
wanted was inversely related to their well-being (emotions and
satisfaction).
MULTIPLE DISCREPANCIES
In 1985, Alex Michalos created the multiple discrepancy theory,
which claimed that people may feel dissatisfied or unhappy from
three things: if the resources acquired throughout their life are not
the same as, or more than, the resources acquired by key figures in
their life (known as a social comparison discrepancy); if people had
access to more resources at one point in time but no longer have the
same access (known as past comparison discrepancy); and if people
have not acquired resources they desired (known as desire
discrepancy, similar to the idea found in the self-discrepancy
theory).
THE UNDESIRED SELF
Rather than focusing on ideals, some researchers believe that
discrepancies that come from the 
undesired
self play a more
important role with regards to mood and satisfaction. In a 1987
study conducted by Rutgers University professor Daniel M. Ogilvie,
an assessment of the actual selves, ideal selves, and undesired selves
was taken. In order to measure the undesired self, participants had
to describe what they were like at their worst. The study found that
discrepancies between the actual self and the undesired self were
very strongly associated with satisfaction, while discrepancies
between the actual self and ideal self were not as strongly associated
with satisfaction.
The theory behind these results is that the undesired self is more
grounded in reality, while the ideal self is too vague of a concept

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because it is not rooted by any real experiences.
ESCAPE THEORY
Escape theory claims that when a person feels important standards
are unattainable, he or she will develop a large self-discrepancy,
and the result will be a strong impulse to escape from the reality of
oneself. The desire to escape can show itself as behaviors like
excessive sleeping, use of drugs, and suicidal tendencies.
According to escape theory, there are a number of phases that
occur prior to a suicide attempt:
1. A person will feel a sense of disappointment or failure
because he or she has become aware of the discrepancy
between the standards he or she expects to accomplish and
him or herself.
2. The person will then attribute the failure to him or herself
instead of attributing it to the transient situations.
3. The person then becomes extremely aware of him or herself,
and begins to constantly evaluate his or her own behavior.
This state of awareness heightens the individual’s negative
feelings about him or herself.
4. Cognitive deconstruction occurs, where the person rejects
any previous perspectives, avoids goals, thinks in concrete
terms, and rejects meaning in anything. From this
deconstructed state, drastic measures, irrational behavior,
and negative emotions seem acceptable and amplified.
Suicide then becomes the ultimate escape for the individual. Such
a downward spiral shows the innate power of these types of
discrepancies, whether between the real self and the ideal self, or
between the real self and the undesired self.

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THE FIRST RORSCHACH BLOT

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THE SECOND RORSCHACH BLOT

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THE THIRD RORSCHACH BLOT

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THE FOURTH RORSCHACH BLOT

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THE FIFTH RORSCHACH BLOT

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THE SIXTH RORSCHACH BLOT

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THE SEVENTH RORSCHACH BLOT

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THE EIGHTH RORSCHACH BLOT

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THE NINTH RORSCHACH BLOT

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THE TENTH RORSCHACH BLOT

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