Establishment

Three major military expeditions (in addition to the many minor ones) were necessary to bring this about (note the three ribs in the Bear in Daniel’s visionch. 7). The Lydian campaign began in 547 B.C. when Croesus moved to take over the part of the empire left by the now defunct Medes. Cyrus moved west to interrupt this action and forced the old Assyri­an/Median groupings to submit to him. He defeated Croesus in the winter of 547 even though he had called on his allies the Babylonians and the Egyptians to help him. Cyrus also began the process of forcing the Ionian Greeks to submit to him as well.²³²

The capture of Babylon took place some eight years later. The reason for the delay is not clear. Since the Greek sources talk about his developing a number of canals north of Babylon (with which Herodotus says he diverted the Euphrates river to allow him to invade Babylon), some argue that he was developing irrigation projects while waiting for Babylon to fall into his hands.²³³ Sippar fell on 10 October and Nabonidus fled to Babylon where he was captured when the Persian forces entered the city. Cyrus himself entered on 29 October, 539 B.C., and the Babylonian territories became Persian thereafter. These territories included the “Abarnaharia” satrap including Syria and Palestine and thus the Jews. Cyrus’ son Cambyses was appointed the king of Babylon. Cyrus was killed in a campaign of 530 B.C., and his son Cambyses became king in his place.
Cambyses II (529-522 B.C.).
Some identify him with Darius the Mede (Dan. 5:31ff), since he ruled Babylon under his father, but that is not likely.²³⁴ Cambyses as the King’s son “took the hands of Marduk” in 538 B.C. and was called king of Babylon.²³⁵ Cook believes that Cambyses irritated the priests at Babylon and that he was not king again until 530 when his father went to the battle in which he was killed.²³⁶ But Olmstead says he ruled as governor the entire time.²³⁷
Cambyses began the Egypt campaign in 526 B.C. (the third major thrust) and conquered all Egypt in 525 B.C. Darius was a spearbearer in Cambyses’ army, and Cook argues that he may have been moving in the highest circles at that time.²³⁸ Amasis the resourceful pharaoh died as Cambyses began his campaigns and the Greek mercenaries deserted to Cambyses. The new pharaoh was defeated in the delta and at Memphis. Cambyses became the king of upper and lower Egypt. He campaigned further south, but it is difficult to sort out malicious rumor and legend from the truth.

In Cambyses’ long absence, there was a usurpation back home. The details are conflict­ing and confused. Cambyses’ manner of death is disputed. He died in Syria in 522, some of the Greek sources say due to a wound suffered when he fell on his dagger. There is confusion in the empire during this time, and the details are hard to determine. Darius, whose vested interested in the story clouds his reliability, claims that a usurper had pretended to be Cambyses’ brother, Bardyia (the Greeks pronounced it Smerdis), had taken over the throne and was killed by Darius and/or the nobles. It may be that Bardyia had indeed taken over the throne in the extended absence of Cambyses and was killed by Darius who was an officer in the army.²³⁹
Gaumata (522-521 B.C.)

Darius called Bardyia, Gaumata. He held brief royal authority until put down by Darius, 522-521 B.C.

Darius I (Hystaspes, 521-486 B.C.).

Darius the Great was the great imperialist, noted for the Behistun inscription.²⁴⁰ He is mentioned by Ezra (he was not a direct descen­dant of Cyrus but of royal blood). Darius immedi­ately faced rebellion in the empire. After much bloody fighting, he succeeded in establishing his rule. This was accomplished by 520 B.C. He claims that he fought nineteen battles and took captive nine kings in one and the same year.²⁴¹ It was in this year that Zechariah began his ministry (Zech. 1:1). All the world was at peace, but Israel was unhappy. Work on the temple was resumed in 520 B.C., and the Cyrus decree was found in Ecbatana (they first looked in Baby­lonEzra 6:1-2), the temple was finished in 516 B.C. twenty years after it had been started. The Persian wars against the Greeks began in 492 and continued under Xerxes. Darius was defeated by the Greeks at Marathon in 490 B.C. Egypt revolted four years later and Darius died as he was setting out to put down the revolt.

Xerxes I (Ahasuerus, 486-465 B.C.).
This is the mad king who in a mighty combined operation sought to avenge Mara­thon, and whom the Greeks defeated at Salamis (480 B.C.) and Plataea (479 B.C.). The feast and assembly of Esther 1:3 is plausibly equated with Herodotus 7:8 (the king pays atten­tion to his harem), while Esther 2:16 may be a refer­ence to the events of Herodotus 9:108, 109, accord­ing to Blaik­lock. [Xerxes wanted the wife of a friend but refrained from taking her. He brought her daughter to the palace and married her to his son, but took liberties with her himself. Through a series of events, his wife learned of it and mutilated the mother of the girl (Herodo­tus).]
Artaxerxes I (Longimanus, 464-424 B.C.).

It was this monarch who permitted Ezra to go to Jerusalem to restore the affairs of the Jew­ish community (Ezra 7, 8) and who promoted the mission of his cup-bearer Nehe­miah thirteen years later.²⁴²

Exile and Restoration
CHRONOLOGY OF THE RESTORATION PERIOD
540 535 530 525 520 515 510 505 500 495 490 485 480 475 470 465 460 455 450 445 440 435 430 425 420 415 410 405 | | | |

Cyrus Cambyses | Darius I | Xerxes | Artaxerxes | Darius II

(539 29) (529 22) | (522 486) | (Ahasuerus) | (465 424) | (423 404)

(486 465)

Edict (538) Ezra returned (spiritual) 457

Temple begun (536) Nehemiah returned (walls) 445

Temple finished (516) Nehemiah back to Susa 432

Nehemiah back to Jerus 427 (?)

Haggai Malachi? Chronicles Written?

Zechariah

[ Ezra 1 6 ] [ Esther ] [Ezra 7 10] [Neh. 1 12] [Neh. 13:4 31]

Genealogical list    > Altar, worship Same list   > Reading of word,

(Ezra 2) Covenant to keep the law

(Neh. 7)

Purpose of Ezra/Nehemiah, Esther, and Chronicles:
Chronicles: Historical basis for the restoration of God’s covenant people (Judah)

to their land in faithfulness and pure worship.

Ezra/Nehemiah: Historical outworking of the basis. Judah is restored, the

temple is rebuilt, the city reconstructed, purity in marriages

and temple established.
Esther: God’s preservation of His covenant people in exile.

20. THE RESTORATION FROM THE EXILE
A. The political structure of Judah under the Persians.
The Assyrians had effectively destroyed independent entities in Syria-Palestine except for Tyre, Sidon and Judah. The native dynasts were replaced by Assyrian governors. Judah also lost her independence to Babylon. When Cyrus took over the Babylonian territory these provinces submitted to Persia and were incorporated into the structure of the empire.²⁴³
“For the government of this wide-extending territory, he [Cyrus] adopted in principle the organiza­tion first devised by the Assyrians, who replaced the states they had conquered by formal provinces. Each was ruled by a governor with a full staff of subordinates, and all kept in close touch with the central power through frequent exchange of orders and reports.”²⁴⁴ The word Satrap means “protector of the King­dom.” The hereditary position of the Satrap created problems of loyalty which was handled by making the military directly responsible to the King.

The large region west of the Euphrates River was called “Cross-River Satrap” (Abar-Nahara). The Satrap seat was in Damascus. The satrapy was divided up into provinces (see figure 3). Judah was one of those provinces. Avi-Yonah argues for the separate Jewish province in spite of the interference of the Samaritans in the Book of Ezra. He says that the loose Persian rule lent itself to disputes among the provinces.²⁴⁵ Stern summarizes his discussion on the organization of the Palestinian states as follows: “In summary, Palestine in the Persian period was apparently organized into a number of provinces or ‘states’ (medinoth). Each unit was ruled by a dynasty of governors, generally of a local family: Samaritans in Samaria (according to the wadi Dali­yeh papyri) and Arabs in the south (according to the Tell el-Maskhuta inscriptions), and possibly also in Judah (as is sug­gested by stamp impressions, bullae, and coins of Jehezekiah). These governors had small courts, imitating those of the satraps, and they stood at the head of small administra­tive organ­izations. . . . . They were probably in charge of small military garrisons and were allowed to keep official stamps of the ‘state’ in their possession, one of the most frequent finds of that period at sites excavated in the province. The governors also seem to have been permitted to strike the small silver coins, which are now known as ‘Palestinian’ coins. Thus far the inscrip­tions of four of the provinces are clearly legible: Samaria, Judah, Ashdod, and Gaza. The provinces were subdivided into ‘parts’ (pelek; Neh. 3:9, 17).”²⁴⁶
Avi-Yonah lists six known governors of Judah during the two hundred years of Persian rule (there may even have been times when there was no governor): Shesh­bazzar, Zerubbabel, Nehem­iah, Bigoai or Bagohi, Yehoezer, Ahio.²⁴⁷ Cross shows that there were a series of Sanballats who ruled as gover­nor of Samaria.²⁴⁸
B. The first return.

There is some confusion about the relationship of Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel. Some will argue that Zerubbabel did not come as governor until 520 or so, and that the “Chronicler” has telescoped his life with Sheshbazzar’s.²⁴⁹ The reconstruction of the temple was begun by Jeshua and Zerub­babel (Ezra 3:1-14). Jeshua was the grandson of the last officiating high priest before the exile (cf. 2 Kings 25:18 and 1 Chron. 6:15). Jeshua him­self soon as­sumed that office and was prominent in Zechariah 1 8. Zerubbabel was a descen­dant of the Davidic family. 1 Chron. 3:19 lists him as a son of Pedaiah, a younger son of Jeconiah rather than Sheal­tiel. Shealtiel could have had a levirate adoption of this son, but the text does not explain what happened. The altar of burnt offering was erected and offerings began to be made.
Ezra 5:16 indicates that Sheshbazzar was the one who laid the original foundation whereas Ezra 3:8 indicates that it was Zerubbabel. Either the two are to be equated or Sheshbazzar was the real governor while Zerubbabel worked under him. Williamson argues that 3:7 4:5 are a “recap­itul­ation” of the events that actually only began under Darius. This, however, assumes chronologi­cal inaccuracies in ch. 3 which is unaccep­table.
C. Broad outline of the books of Ezra and Nehemiah.
1. Return under Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel to build the temple (538 B.C.)Ezra 1 6.

2. Return of Ezra for spiritual reform (458 B.C.)Ezra 7 10.

3. Return of Nehemiah to rebuild the walls (445433 B.C.)Neh. 1 7.

4. Revival of the peopleNeh. 8 12.

5. Nehemiah’s second returnNeh. 13.
D. Events under Cyrus, first king of Persia539 529 B.C.

1. Edict issued returning people and temple contents  538.

2. Temple foundation laid536.

E. Events under Cambyses II, Cyrus’ son529 522 B.C.
Cambyses, Cyrus’ son, was installed for a short time in Babylon. After he became king he invaded Egypt. The circumstan­ces sur­rounding his death and his successors is shrouded in mystery. He is said to have died when he learned that his brother had usurped the throne in his absence. His most notable success was the defeat of Egypt. No biblical events. Cam­byses is referred to in the Elephan­tine papyri.
F. Gaumata (522-521 B.C.)
The person who took the throne in Cambyses’ absence was his brother Bardiya whom Darius calls Gaumata and Herodotus calls Smerdis. Scholars believe that Darius’ story about a man pre­tend­ing to be Gaumata/Bardiya who had been killed already by Cambyses is a concoction to defend Darius’ rise to the throne.²⁵⁰
G. Events under Darius, the great, Persian general522 486 B.C.
1. Darius defeats Gaumata and strug­gles to put down rebellions (done by 518).

2. Zechariah begins his ministry in second year of Darius.

3. The temple was completed in 516.

4. Darius was defeated at Marathon by Greeks in 490.

H. Events under Xerxes (Ahasuerus)486 465 B.C.
1. Xerxes was defeated at Salamis in 480.

2. The events of Esther may have taken place after his return.

I. Events under Artaxerxes I465 424 B.C.
1. Ezra’s return to promote religious reform458 B.C. Fensham says Egypt revolted in 460 and was suppressed in 456. Arta­xerxes needed loyal people in Judah and may have sent Ezra for this purpose (Ezra 7:8).²⁵¹

2. Nehemiah’s first return445 (Neh. 5:14).

Fensham says the Persian general who defeated Egypt became angry at Arta­xerxes and revolted against him. Later he declared loyalty and was restored, but again Artaxerxes would want loyal leaders in the west and so may have sent Nehemiah.

3. Ezra apparently came back a second time early in Nehe­miah’s period (Neh. 8 10; 12:36).

4. Nehemiah returns a second time432 (Neh. 13:6).

J. Later Persian Kings424-330 B.C.
Xerxes II (Promptly murdered by half-brother, Sogdianus)

Sogdianus (Murdered after a few months by half-brother, Ochus)

Ochus known as Darius II (423-404)

Arsaces known as Artaxerxes II (404-358)

Ochus known as Artaxerxes III (358-338)

Arses (338-336) murdered by Darius III

Darius III (336-330)
The last one hundred years of Persian rule were chaotic. The kings tended to weak­nesses, were often dominated by their women, and were filled with cruelty. The Satraps often revolted and declared independence.
K. Temple Construction.
The work of the temple construction was interrupted by the opposition of the surrounding peoples. A letter was sent back to Cyrus asking that the work be stopped. They were successful.
A number of historical problems exist in the identification of this letter.
1. The older commentaries link Ahasuerus with Cambyses (this would then place the letter in 529 B.C). They also link Arta­xerxes with Gaumata (as Darius called him) who struggled for the throne after the death of Cambyses in 522 B.C. Working from A. T. Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire, and J.M. Cook, The Persian Empire, Cam­byses ruled from 529 to 522 and left for Egypt in 526 never to return to Mesopotamia (he died near Mt. Car­mel). If he is indeed Ahasue­rus, he would also be the Persian king of Esther. This is not impossible, but Cook says that Cambyses was in Babylonia at Abanu near Uruk in 528. The setting for Esther is Susa in the Satrap of Elam. He could have returned to Susa for the events of Esther during the two years before he left for Egypt.
2. The Artaxerxes/Gaumata/Smerdis/Bardiya equation is more difficult since it is made nowhere else that I know of, and it would require the introduction of an otherwise unknown Arta­xerxes. Further­more, this was a time of great disturbance with Bardiya (Cambyses’ brother) taking over the throne. He only ruled about six months. It is more difficult to suppose that the leaders of Sama­ria would write to Bardiya/Gau­mata while Cambyses was in their area or that the time would permit a letter and a response as in Ezra 4.

3. The letter does not speak of the temple (the situation in question), but it does speak of the walls  a situa­tion apropos to Nehemiah’s time (the historical situation underlying the accusation in Ahasuerus’ [Xerxes’] time and the aborted attempt to build a wall in Arta­xerxes’ time are other­wise unknown).
4. The temple was completed according to the decrees of Cyrus, Darius and Artaxerxes (6:14). The order is important. It is not Cyrus, Ahasuerus, Artaxerxes, Darius as in Chapter 4, but Cyrus, Darius, Arta­xerxes. Ezra, the writer of this book, is functioning under the decree of Artaxerxes (458 B.C.). That decree mentions the temple in 7:11,15, 16,23 and even says the temple is to be adorned in 7:27. Ezra, therefore, views Artaxer­xes’ decree as having a vital function in relation to the temple.
5. Williamson²⁵² citing others, argues that 4:5 and 4:24 are literary markers (referring to Darius) that indicate the insertion of material in between.
I therefore would concur with Keil and now Fensham²⁵³ that this chapter contains a collage of letter writing used to illustrate the continuous opposition the Jews encoun­tered.

L. The work of Ezra the Priest.
“To judge from the Ezra material, it appears fairly clear that the great relig­ious leader was con­cerned primarily with the reorganization of the cult on the basis of the Pentateuchal legislation . . . it is becom­ing increasingly certain that Ezra did not function as governor. What he came to do was more significant in the long run  laying the foundations of Judaism that was to make an incalculable impact upon the world in the following centuries. . . It is perhaps not too much to say that what Nehemiah did for the body of Judaism, Ezra did for its soul.”²⁵⁴

The idea of a scribe is an old one, but the only early biblical reference to the word (sopher) is in the poetic section of Judges 5. Under the monarchy they served as court secretaries. Baruch was a scribe to Jeremiah. However, it is with Ezra that the New Testament type of scribe emerges. He is one who is trained in the law of Moses­to copy it and to interpret it. (KJV has “ready scribe”; NASB has “a scribe skilled.” The Hebrew phrase sopher maher means first a fast writer and then a skilled writer and then a competent person. As Samuel was to the prophetic move­ment, so Ezra was to the scribal movement²⁵⁵

Ezra’s purpose was to study the law to practice it and to teach the statutes and ordinances to Israel (7:10). Williamson says, “The scribe, we should note, was not only a student of Scripture, but expli­citly a practitioner and especially a teacher of its require­ments. And these qualities we find ex­emplified in Ezra’s ministry.”²⁵⁶
Artaxerxes had sent a special decree with Ezra (7:11 26). Fen­sham says that the “Jewish­ness” of the letter is to be explained by the fact that Ezra probably drafted the letter that went out in the name of the king²⁵⁷ He permitted people to go with Ezra, and permitted him to collect money for the undertak­ing. Ezra was to take utensils to be used in the temple back with him. Arta­xerxes gave him an expense voucher and freed certain temple workers from taxes. He commis­sioned Ezra to appoint officers to enforce the Mosaic law.²⁵⁸
Williamson²⁵⁹ says, “It has been widely accepted since Schaeder’s work that ‘the scribe of the law of the God of heaven’ was an official Persian title, so that some have gone so far as to translate ‘minister­/secretary of state for Jewish affairs.’
Ezra’s purpose in coming to Jerusalem was two fold: (1) He was to “inquire concerning Judah and Jerusalem ac­cording to the law of your God which is in your hand” (7:14). Williamson suggests that this facet of the commis­sion took three directions. First it would inves­tigate how closely the temple wor­ship related to the Mosaic law. Second, the concern with mixed marriages may have in part been concerned with who legitimately came under this law. Third, it may have involved check­ing up on the use of state aid for the temple worship. (2) The second purpose is more difficult to understand (7:25). He was to appoint “magistrates and judges.” This was no doubt designed to regulate the lives of those in the Hever Naharain Satrap who con­sidered themselves to be Jews.
M. The work of Nehemiah.

Much debate surrounds the chronological relationship be­tween Ezra and Nehemiah. Some will argue that Ezra actu­ally came to Jerusalem after Nehemiah in spite of the statements to the contrary in the books themselves. Some will rearrange the material be­tween the two books.²⁶⁰
Hanani (shortened form for Hananiah) is referred to as Nehemiah’s brother. This reference should be understood in a literal sense because of 7:2. There is another Hananiah connected with the Elephantine community, but whether they are the same man is not clear. The break­ing down of the walls is debated. Some believe a recent attempt to build the walls has been frus­trated, but it seems more likely that the reference is to the destruc­tion of 586 B.C. The walls continue to lie in ruins even though the temple has been built. The people are vul­nerable to attacks from all those around them.
Sanballat the Horonite is known from the Elephantine Papyri as the governor of Samaria. The date of that papyrus is 408 B.C. There he was older, and his sons were representing him. The Nehemiah context is over thirty years earlier. The reference to him as a Horo­nite is not clear. It may refer to the town of lower beth Horon or it may refer to a deity.
A letter from a Jewish mercenary colony in Egypt:
“To our lord Bagoas, governor of Judah [one of six known gover­nors, cf. Avi Yonah, The Holy Land, 14], your servants Yedoniah and his colleagues, the priests who are in the fortress of Eleph­antine. . . . [they then tell how their temple to Yaho was torn down in some kind of a pogrom]. We have also sent a letter before now, when this evil was done to us, [to] our lord and to the high priest Johanan and his colleagues the priests in Jerusa­lem and to Ostanes the brother of Hanani and the nobles of the Jews. Never a letter have they sent to us. . . . We have also set the whole matter forth in a letter in our name to Delaiah and Shelemiah, the sons of Sanballat the governor of Samaria . . . . On the 20th of Marheshwan, year 17 of King Darius [II, 408 B.C.]”²⁶¹
A later letter indicates that Governor Bogahi en­couraged the rebuilding.

Tobiah the Ammonite is an obscure figure. Quite a bit is known about the Tobiads of the third century. Josephus tells us that they played an important part in the events leading up to the Maccabean revolt. “The great man of the family was Joseph, the son of Tobiah, who was active under Ptolemy III Euergetes (246-221 B.C.).”²⁶² A tomb inscription, Tobiah, is dated by Mazar in the sixth or fifth centuries. He concludes that, “This Tobiah [in Nehemiah] was not only a Jew (not half-Ammonite and half-Jew, or even pure Ammonite, as some scholars hold to this day), but one of the heads of the Jews and a relative of the high priest, exactly like Tobiah the father of Joseph a hundred and fifty years later. Nehemiah states expressly (vi, 18) that ‘there were many in Judah sworn unto him.’²⁶³ The use of the phrase in Nehemiah “the Ammonite servant” is for Mazar to be equated with “servant of the king,” i.e., of the king of Persia, and thus concludes that Tobiah may have been the governor of Ammon.²⁶⁴ Williamson argues that he was probably an associate of Sanballat and may have had some temporary respon­sibility in Judah in the absence of a gover­nor.²⁶⁵ “Ammo­nite” is certainly a pejorative term. Nehemiah recorded a past event in which Eliashib had become related by marriage to Tobiah. Elia­shib had pre­pared a special room for him in the temple when he visited­ (Neh. 1­3:5). Fen­sham argues that this is not the same Elia­shib as the high priest since this one is over the chamber.²⁶⁶
An additional adversary appears in 2:19 by the name of Geshem the Arab. This man is well known as a powerful Arabian operating within the Persian empire with a fair amount of indepen­dence. There is no way of knowing why he is hostile to Nehemiah, who could have posed little threat to him, unless he simply does not want any strengthening of the Persian influence in a neighboring province.
The wall was finished in 52 days. This was a phenomenal achieve­ment! It may be that the walls were not entirely destroyed by the Babylonians, or that the quality of his work was of the highest nature, but even so Nehemiah ac­com­plished a gigantic task. As a result, the enemies were discouraged. Com­munica­tion had been going on be­tween the enemies and certain Jews in the city. As a matter of fact Jehohanan was the offspring of Tobiah who had married a Jewish girl. He seems to be excluded from the Jewish community by Nehemiah, so he was treated as foreigner.
Nehemiah speaks for the first time of the fact that he had been gone from Jerusalem for much of this time (Keil says several years) (13:6). When he returned to Jerusalem, he threw Tobiah’s stuff out and cleansed the room (13:­7 8).

21. JEWS IN EXILE
Ackroyd says, “This glimpse of Jewish life elsewhere [Elephantine], and the rather tantalizing indications of its contacts with Jerusalem and Samaria, emphasize the importance of realizing how, in the whole period, the life of the Jewish community was not concentrated in one place.”²⁶⁷
The Jews at Nippur
Jeremiah advised the members of the golah about 594 to settle down in their new land, plant vineyards, marry off their children, pray for the peace of the city and otherwise decide that they will be in Babylon for a long time (Jeremiah 29:4-7). We get brief glimpses of the com­munity in Ezekiel when the Elders come to him to inquire of the Lord, and other things. This indicates that the Jews were allowed to stay, perhaps in settlements, and to maintain Jewish leadership of some sort.
From the next century (under Artaxerxes I [464-424 B.C.] and Darius II [424-404]), comes a marvelous cache of some 730 tablets (presumed to be from Nippur according to Stolper.²⁶⁸ These are known as the Murashu documents, named after the head of a financial firm that was itself Babylonian. They are written in Akkadian cuneiform, often with Aramaic ink inscriptions. They come from the town of Nippur just south of Babylon. The names in the documents indicate that there were Persians, Medes, Egyptians and West Semites in this cosmo­politan town. The West Semites included Jews with such names as Hanani, Shabbatai and Jonathan. Several other Jewish names show up in the contracts.
There is no evidence of any discrimination against the Jews: they are charged the same interest rates, have the same type of careers, and some hold important positions. There was a tendency to take Babylo­nian names (perhaps as second names). This holds true for the royal family especially (cf. Sheshbazzar, Zerubbabel, Mordecai, Esther). There may have been a tendency to use Hebrew names that fit into the Babylonian culture (e.g., theophoric names with “el”).

These Jews had become fully integrated into Babylonian society and, perhaps too well, fulfilled Jeremiah’s orders.²⁶⁹ These records constitute the most information we have on the period of Artaxerxes I and following.
Jews at Elephantine
The island of Elephantine lies at the southernmost part of the old Egyptian kingdom. It is situated opposite of the village of Aswan or Syene which is on the river bank. “The latter name [Syene] appears in Ezek. 29:10, 30:6 as indicating the southern border of Egypt; it probably should also be read in Isa. 49:12. The name Elephantine, translated from the Egyptian Yeb, probably refers to the importance of this area for the ivory trade, and the position of the island and of Syene are of great significance both for trade and for frontier control.”²⁷⁰ I am more inclined to think that the name Elephantine comes from the large black rock forma­tions around the island that look much like elephants.
There are two major collections of papyri owing their provenance to this island: one became part of a private collection at the end of the nineteenth century that were only published in 1953. The other collection came from various sources and were published at an earlier date.²⁷¹
In their letter to governor Bagohi of Judah, they indicate that their temple was in existence when Cambyses entered Egypt in 525. Their community could be much older since they are merely making their point that their temple was not torn down at that time.²⁷² They describe their island home as a “garrison” (birtha, see Ezra 6:2). They were evidently employed as a foreign mercenary troop on the southern border of Egypt. They could have come to Egypt after the debacle on 586; they could have come from one of the settlements such as came to Egypt with Jeremiah or they could have been an earlier movement.²⁷³
Perhaps one of the most interesting items to come from the Elephantine correspondence and records is the existence of a Jewish temple to the god Yaho. They also used Biblical terms for Yahweh: “the God of Heaven,” “Lord of hosts” (not in papyri, but on ostraca), and the one “who dwells (in Elephantine).” The temple was served by priests and offered sacrifice: “meal offering, incense, and holocaust”).

In discussing the question of why a temple would exist at Elephantine, Porten argues that there were two and perhaps three Jewish temples outside Jerusalem. The temple of Onias outside Leontopolis which was built by a disaffected Onias IV after the Maccabees had regained control of Jerusalem and rejected Onias from the priesthood. He fled to Egypt, entered the service of Ptolemy VI. “He was placed in charge of a Jewish military contingent, established in the fortress of Leonto­polis, and granted permission to erect there a Temple to the Lord wherein priests and Levites officiated.”²⁷⁴ Josephus says that Onias was motivated by Isaiah’s prophecy that an altar to Yahweh would be erected in Egypt (Isaiah 19:19).²⁷⁵ The second one is at Elephan­tine, which Porten argues, was built during the troubling times of Manasseh about 650 B.C. He even suggests that the Jews who fled Manasseh’s persecution would have gone because of his pagan­ization of the temple in Jerusalem. The Samaritan temple (which Porten refers to as Jewish) was built during the transition from Persia to Alexander.²⁷⁶ He also believes the Tobiads had a temple as well. In each case there was a time of dissen­tion and the temple was connected with a fortress.

The people of Elephantine mixed with the local population, though the local people became Jews rather than vice versa. As one might expect, there was probably a fair amount of syncretism as indicated in the use of the pagan gods in vows.

The temple was torn down in 410 B.C. A letter was sent to Jerusalem appealing for help, but this letter was not answered according to a subsequent letter. The priests at Jerusalem failed to respond to the request for help (as one might expect from the new Jewish community in Jerusalem). However, subse­quently, the civil governor (Baghoi) did grant permission to rebuild the temple but did not mention the holocaust offering which may be a compromise to which the Elephan­tine community acceded. No documents have been found dated after 399 B.C. Was the temple rebuilt? Did the priests of Knum, who had been hostile to them originally, tear it down later? Porten thinks it was rebuilt, but is not willing to assume a subsequent destruc­tion.²⁷⁷

“To our lord Bagoas, governor of Judah, your servants Yedoniah and his colleagues, the priests who are in the fortress of Elephantine. . . . Now your servants Yedoniah, and his col­leagues, and the Jews, the citizens of Elephantine, all say thus: If it please our lord, take thought of this temple to rebuild it, since they do not let us rebuild it. . . . And you shall have a merit before Yaho the God of Heaven more than a man who offers to him burnt offering and sacrifices worth a thousand talents of silver and (because of) gold. Because of this we have written to inform you. We have also set the whole matter forth in a letter in our name to Delaiah and Shelemiah, the sons of Sanballat the governor of Samaria.”²⁷⁸

22. JUDAISM DURING THE GREEK PERIOD330-64 B.C.
A. The Historical Outline
1. Alexander the Great (336-323)
The Conquest of Persia
334 Battle of Granicus

334-3 Conquest of Lycia, Pamphylia and Western Pisidia

333 Conquest of Cilicia, Battle of Issus

332 Siege and capture of Tyre; conquest of Egypt

331 Foundation of Alexandria; submission of Cyrene; settlement of Syria; Battle of Gau­gamela; occupation of Babylon, Susa and Persepolis

330 At Ecbatana (Darius dies)

328 Conquest of Bactria and Sogdiana

327 Invasion of India

324 Returns to Susa

323 Alexander dies at Babylon

2. Hellenism
Contrary to his tutor, Aristotle, Alexander believed that there was nobility to be found in the “barbarians.” Consequent­ly, he determined not to rule Persia as a Macedonian king, but as a king he would rule Macedonia and Persia. He believed in mixing the races and promoted intermar­riage. He held to a Greek ideal.
3. The Successors
Alexander had no heir. Roxanne, a Bactrian princess, was pregnant at the time of his death. Her son, Alexander IV, was kept alive as the possible next king and became a pawn in the power struggle that was to last for thirty years. He was mur­dered by Cassander in 310. Names that figure prominently (among others) are Perdiccas, Anti­gonus, Cassander, Ptolemy, Seleucid. The two dynasties with which the Bible is con­cerned are Ptolemy (Egypt) and Seleu­cid (Syria and east).

Josephus’ material for the period prior to the Hasmonean era is very thin. He includes the long story about the transla­tion of the Septuagint, most of which is considered spurious by scho­lars who work in this area. However, he has considerable detail once he comes to the Maccabean period. (The following notes are based on the 1973 edition of Schürer’s, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ.)
4. The Hasmonean Era167-4 B.C.
Palestine was tossed back and forth by the Ptolemies and Seleu­cids until Antiochus III was able to gain permanent control of it at the beginning of the second century. The govern­ment of Judah under the Persians and Greeks was in the hands of the high priest who was not only in charge of religious affairs, but also ruled the political arena with the assistance of elders. This situa­tion prevailed so long as the taxes were paid.
There were two distinct movements within Judaism: the hel­lenistic party, more coopera­tive with the ruling culture; and the “devout” or hasidim. During most of this period, the hellenists appear to have had the upper hand. Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.) set in motion a movement that was to change the politi­cal landscape as well as the religious situation for dec­ades to come. By virtue of his efforts to impose Hellenism on the gene­ral Jewish population, he opened a Pandora’s box of conservative rebellion.
The high priest at the beginning of Antiochus IV’s rule was Onias III who was apparent­ly from the conservative party. His brother Jason (Jesus) was a hellenist. Jason bribed Antiochus to make him high priest (174-171?). However, he was outbid by another hel­lenist, Menelaus (perhaps a Ben­jamite), who probably caused the murder of Onias III when he was enticed from his refuge in Daphne.
Jason in turn overthrew Menelaus and so prompted Antiochus to attack Jerusalem as a rebellious city when he returned from Egypt in 169. He looted the temple treasures, caused a bloodbath and left the city to Menelaus and a Phrygian named Philip.
The next year (168) Antiochus conducted another campaign against Egypt but was stopped by Popillius Laenas (a Roman gene­ral). Antiochus sent a tax collector to Jerusalem in 167 (Apol­lonius?). There was a massacre, pillaging, destruction and many Jews were sold into slavery. The Acra was built in the old city of David (not the Antonia) and occupied by pagan forces. In 167 a heathen altar was built in Jerusalem and on 25 Kislev the first offering was made to Zeus.
Mattathias (d. 166)
Mattathias, a priest from Modin, led the resistance against Antiochus’ efforts to hellenize the Jews. He killed apostate Jews, circumcised boys, etc. He died in 166.
Judas (d. 161)

His son Judas (the hammer=Maccabee) led the movement after his father’s death. He won the first battle against Appolonius, and a second at Beth-horon. Lysias, the Syrian general, sent three generals with a large force to Judea in 165. In spite of the uneven odds, Judas defeated them. In 164 Lysias himself led an army. Judas apparently defeated this army as well. He was then able to take Jerusalem and restore and purify the altar, but he was unable to take the Akra (Kislev 164). Judas then attacked and conquered many of the small territories round about. Mean­while, Antiochus IV died while cam­paigning in the east. Lysias seized power through Antiochus’s son, Antiochus V (164-162).
Jews who had escaped from the Akra fled to Antiochus V and pled for intervention against the conserva­tives. Lysias returned to attack Judas. Although he won, trouble in Syria forced him to make concessions to the Jews that gave them religious freedom. Those concessions were not removed by subsequent rulers. Hence­forth, the struggle was not over religious freedom, but over whether orthodox or hel­lenists would control the leadership.
Alcimus (Yakim), a hellenist, appealed to the new king Demetrius I Soter (162-150) who installed him as high priest. Many people, including some of the orthodox, accepted him, but Judas did not. Alcimus executed sixty of the “devout,” and thus acerbated the situation. Judas began to gain the upper hand, and Alcimus sent to Demetrius for help. Demetrius sent General Nicanor, but he was soundly defeated by Judas. Schürer ques­tions whether Judas ever became high priest, but says he was for all practi­cal purposes, the ruler of the Jewish community (1:171). Judas appealed to Rome for help. The senate made a treaty with him and ordered Demetrius to let the Jews alone. However, Demet­rius had already attacked. Judas’ army was defeated, and he was killed (161).
Jonathan (161-143)
The Maccabean party was no longer effective. General Bac­chides fortified various cities, reinforced the Acra, and took promi­nent Jewish hostages. The hellenists were in power again under Alcimus. Jonathan was not able to assert much influence until later, and the Syrians made peace with him. The subsequent squabbles of the Syrians led their factions to cater to the Maccabees for support and thus assured the continuing position of Jonathan.
Alexander Balas challenged Demetrius for the throne of Syria and offered Jonathan the high priest­hood, which he accepted. Alexander became king and honored his promises to Jonathan, but he was deposed by Demetrius II. Because of Seleucid weakness, Jonathan demanded and received concessions from Demetrius. Samaria was ceded and taxation was lifted. Jonathan continued to exploit the internal struggles of the Syrians and thus expand his power and his borders. Deme­trius’ son Antiochus V arose against his father under Tryphon. Tryphon enticed Jonathan to Ptolemais where he arrested him and eventually murdered him.
Simon (143-135)

Under Simon the movement that began simply to give the Jews religious freedom pro­vided the indepen­dence of the Jewish people politically (Simon actually was more politically than spiritually motivated). Tryphon assassinated Antiochus V and took the crown. Simon turned to Demetrius II who was continuing to carry on the struggle. Demetrius granted a remission of back taxes and dropped the requirement for any future tribute. Judah thus gained her independence. Simon defeated Gazera (Gezer) and expelled the Gen­tiles. He was able also to defeat the Akra and thus released Jerusalem from Gentile domina­tion.
Demetrius was captured by the Parthians and Antiochus VII carried on the struggle with Antiochus V. He at first supported the Jews, but later demanded their submis­sion to him. When Simon refused, he sent an army which Simon’s two sons routed. Simon was assassinated along with two of his sons by an ambitious son-in-law named Ptolemy. The last of the Maccabee brothers was dead. From Mattathias’ death in 166 to Simon’s death in 135, the Jews had moved from an oppressed minority within the Seleucid Empire to an independent state with expanded borders. The hel­lenistic party had been shoved aside and the conservatives were in the position of leadership. All this happened in thirty years.
The Hasmonean Dynasty
John Hyrcanus (134-104 B.C.)
Simon had the titles Prince and High Priest de­clared hereditary, and so his son John Hyrcanus became the next ruler of the Jewish community. Antiochus VII laid siege to John in Jeru­salem and forced his capitulation and the return of Gezer and Joppa. So John lost what Simon had gained.
However, Antiochus VII was killed by the Parthians who released Demetrius II, and he again became involved in the politics of Syria (129-126 B.C.). Because of his preoccupation, he was unable to attend to the Jews, and John began to press for control of more territory. He forced the Idumeans to become circumcised. Anti­ochus VIII defeated and killed Alexander Zebinas and became undisput­ed ruler of Syria (123-113). Antiochus did not become involved in Judea, and so John Hyr­canus was left to his own. He expanded the territory further, defeating and razing the town of Samaria.

We learn for the first time the names Pharisee and Sad­ducees. John broke with the Pharisees and sided with the Sad­ducees. The Pharisees probably were nothing more than the “devout” or hasidim. The sons of Zadok (Zadokites and Sad­ducees) were hellenistic. They cooperated with Antiochus IV, accepted only the Pentateuch (not oral law), and were oriented to this life. The Maccabees were originally more in line with the Phari­sees. They were the preservers of the law. The later Maccabees were more willing to cooperate with the Sadducees and John ac­tually broke with the Pharisees, because he became increasingly more interested in the political over the spiri­tual.
Aristobulus I (104-103 B.C.)
Aristobulus reigned only one year. Josephus says that he incarcerated or killed his mother and all his brothers. Schürer wonders if this cruelty might have been invented by his Pharisee enemies. He forced the Itureans (living in Lebanon) to be circum­cised as his father had the Edomites. He apparently should be credited with Juda­izing Galilee which was pre­dominantly Gen­tile.
Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 B.C.)
Aristobulus’ widow, Salome Alexandra, released the three brothers from prison, elevated Alexander Jannaeus (Heb=Jonathan) to the leadership position, and married him. Jannaeus loved war and kept the country embroiled in it. He almost lost the country at one time to a Ptolemy who had left Egypt. This Ptolemy’s mother Cleopatra kept her son at bay and so preserved Judea for Alexander.
He had a running war with the Pharisees who even fought battles against him. They invited the Syrian army in and Alex­ander was defeated and had to sue for peace. At one point he is said to have crucified eight hundred Pharisees. Some identify him with the “wicked priest” of Qumran, although Schürer believes the founding of Qumran is too early for this. He does believe that he is represented in the Nahum Pesher as a wicked person.
Salome Alexandra (76-67 B.C.)
Alexander’s widow became the queen, and she nominated her son Hyrcanus II to be high priest. Salome (Schürer: Shalomzion) Alexandra was quite different from her husband. She sided fully with the Pharisees and reinstituted the Pharisees’ laws rescinded by her husband. She ruled well and was highly respected by all the people. The Pharisees were the de facto rulers and were reined in only under pressure from the Sadducees who were joined by Alexandra’s son Aristobulus II. Hyrcanus II was expected to succeed to the throne, but Aristobulus II was preparing to resist him. Alexandra died with the issue unresolved.
Aristobulus II (67-63 B.C.)

Aristobulus began to fight Hyrcanus upon the death of their mother. Hyrcanus was defeated and allowed to “go into retire­ment” to live off his stipends. Enter the Edomite (Idu­mean) Antipater. Antipater’s father, also Antipater, had been ap­pointed governor of Idumea by Alexander Jannaeus (remember that Hyrcanus I had subju­gated the Idu­means and forced them to become Jews). Antipater convinced Hyr­canus that he should try to regain his throne. Antipater also talked the Nabataean king, Aretas, into sup­porting the effort by promising asylum to Hyrcanus. Consequent­ly, the Nabataeans and the Idumeans began to arbitrate the fate of the Jews. Aretas came after Aristobulus with an army and besieged him in the temple mount.
The Hasmoneans and Herod

Hasmonean Dynasty

Mattathias (d. 166 B.C.)

┌──────────────────┬─────────────────┐

│ │ │

Judas Jonathan Simon

(d. 160) (d. 143) (d. 134) Herodian Dynasty

│

John Hyrcanus I─────────────────────────> Subjugated Idumaea

(134-104) and compelled them

│ to become Jews

│

┌── Aristobulus I (103)

Salome Alexandra │

(wife of both, 75-67) ─┴── Alexander Jannaeus ───────────────────────> Ap­pointed Antipater I

│ (102-76 B.C.) governor of Idumea

├─────────────────────┐ (d. c. 70 B.C.)

Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II │

(executed 30) (poisoned 49) │

│ │ Antipater II

│ ┌──┴──────────────┐ (d. 43 B.C.)

Alexandra ─────┬──── Alexander Antigonus (Pro­cur­ator of Judea)

(executed 28) │ (executed 49) (executed 37) │

│ Last Has­monean │

┌────────┴────────────┐ king ┌────────┴───────┬──────────┐

│ │ Herod the Great Joseph Phasael

Aristobulus III │ (37-4 B.C.)

(murdered 34) │ │

│ │

┌───────────────────────┼─────────────┬───────────────┬─────────────────┴──┐

│ │ │ │ │

Doris Mariamme Mariamme II Malthace Cleopatra

(Idumean) (executed 29) (dtr. Simon (Sama│itan) (Jewess)

│ │ High Priest) │ │

│ │ │ │ │

Antipater │ │ │ │

┌───────┘ Philip(1) ┌────┴────────┐ │

│ │ │ │ │

Aristobulus──┬──Berenice │ Antipas(2) Ar­chelaus(3) Philip(4)

│ 1st │ (4 BC-39 AD) (4 BC-6 AD) (4 BC-33 AD)

┌──────────────┴───────┐ │2nd │

│ │ │ │

Agrippa I(5) Herodias ───┴──────────┘

(37-44 A.D.) │

│ Salome

Procurators(6)

(44-53 A.D.)

│

Agrippa II(7)

(53-70 A.D.

d. 101)

Legend
¹Little is known about this Philip except that he was the first hus­band of Herodias (Matt. 14:3).

²Antipas ruled Galilee and Peraea (Luke 3:1; 13:32). He divorced his Naba­taean wife to marry Herodias who was married to his brother Philip.¹ He was banished by Caligula.
³Herod’s will had to be confirmed by Augustus. Archelaus, called an Ethnarch, was given Judea, Samaria and Idumaea (Matt. 2:22). He was later banished to Gaul, and Judea was ruled by Procur­ators (6-37 A.D.)
⁴Philip ruled Batanea, Trachonitis, Auranitis, Gaulanitis, Panias and Iturea (Luke 3).
⁵Agrippa I, the grandson of Herod the Great, eventually came into control of all the territory of Herod. He received Philip’s⁴ territory in 37 A.D., Antipas’² in 39 A.D., and finally Judea and Samaria in 40 A. D. He is mentioned in Acts 12:19. His daughter Drucilla married the Roman governor Felix (Acts 24:24). He died in 44 A.D.
⁶During the minority of Agrippa II, Judea was again ruled by procur­ators.
⁷Agrippa II (Acts 25:13; 26:32) eventually received control of the old ter­ritory. He carried on an incestuous rela­tionship with his sister Bernice. His king­dom went down in 70 A.D. He sided with Rome and retired in 70 A.D.

**********

B. The Religious Outline
There are virtually no details on the organization and structure of the Jewish community in the exile. From Ezekiel, we learn that there were communities of Jews which seemed to have consider­able latitude. The elder rule seems to have continued in exile with false prophets and priests continuing to exercise influence.
The community that returned under Zerubbabel (later affected so dramatically by Ezra and Nehemiah) was a spiritually chastened group. They had, for the most part, learned their lesson about idolatry. The community to which they returned, however, was a different matter. These Jews left in the land (of the poorer sort and probably uneducated) had continued the syncretistic practices so prevalent in the days of Jeremiah. The threat to the returning group was that they would quickly revert to the old practices under the influences of the people who had remained in Palestine. This threat had to be met directly and this is what is going on in the confronta­tions between them and Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah.

Certain practices (some of which may have been instituted during the exile) set in motion by Ezra and Nehemiah became the official norm for Judaism and provided the base for the develop­ment during Hellenistic times for issues that are full-blown when the gospels open.
1. Synagogue Worship.
The origin of the synagogue is obscure. Psalm 74:8 may be an early reference to syna­gogues (mo’de-el) from the Persian period. It is supposed that the synagogue had its precursor in the spontane­ous gatherings of the Jewish people in the lands of the exile on their day of rest and also on special feast days (see G. F. Moore, Judaism, Vol. I, pp. 281-301).
The synagogue became the stronghold of the Pharisees as opposed to the Sadducees who controlled the temple. Acts 15:11 shows that the synagogue was considered an ancient institution. Its primary purpose was one of instruction. Education became very important during Hellenistic times. Academies were begun. The “schools” of Hillel and Shammai were the most famous.
The synagogue became the means for preserving Juda­ism particularly in the diaspora even in the midst of pagan influence. It formed the nucleus for the Church in the propagation of the Gospel.
Because of the need to maintain the purity of worship and to avoid syncretism, a strong separatism was established. This, in many ways, seems unfair, since many of the Jews who had stayed in the land would have been of pure Jewish descent. However, the deep seated syncretism in the People of the land required that drastic action be taken.²⁷⁹ (I would have to assume that any “non-exiled” Jew would have been allowed to come into the commu­nity, had he pronounced himself absolutely and only loyal to Yahweh.) The extent of the separatism is indicated in the divorce decree issued by Ezra and the elders. The logical extension of this separatism is to be seen in the development of separatist sects and their rivals.²⁸⁰
2. The Sects.
The Pharisees.
Josephus says that there were three schools of philosophy among the Jews: Pharisees, Sadducees and Essenes (Wars, II 118ff). He goes into considerable detail in describing the latter, presumably because of their uniqueness.

Josephus says that the Pharisees are considered the most accurate interpreters of the laws and hold the position of the leading sect. They teach a union of providence (fate) and the free will, the immor­tality of the soul, but only the soul of the good passes into another body (Acts 23:6-9).
Their name in Hebrew refers to separation. They are also apparently referred to as hasidim (the pious ones).
The Pharisees had a number of commendable attitudes. They were avid students of the Scripture, and many sought true holiness. Their problem as a group was the stress on oral tradition and their legalistic concern with minutiae. They were the implacable foes of the Sadducees. Pharisaism continued after the destruction of the temple at Jabneh (Jamnia).
The Sadducees.
The name Sadducee is probably related to Hebrew sedeq or righteous, but it is also the name of a famous priestly family, Sadok.²⁸¹
The Sadducees are priests, but not all priests are Sadducees. They form an aristocracy among the Jews, and Josephus says the common people had no use for them.
Some argue that they accept only the Pentateuch, but Josephus does not mention this. They deny provi­dence and argue that man determines his own life. They deny the resurrec­tion of the body, but not necessarily the immortality of the soul, although Josephus says, “They hold the soul perishes along with the body.”²⁸²
They were strictly conservative, denying any oral law and cooperating with whomever was in power. They appear only occasionally in the Gospels disput­ing with Jesus about the resurrec­tion. The high priest, of course, was a Sadducee.
The Sadducees disappeared with the destruction of the temple in A.D. 70.
The Essenes.
Thackeray says that the name is probably from Ara­maic hasa, pious. Philo connects it with Greek hosios, pious.²⁸³ Josephus presents them as a strict, celibate people who must pass through four stages of initiation to be fully admitted to membership. He says that another group practiced marriage.

The relation of these Essenes to the Qumran com­munity is generally accepted, but it seems to me that Josephus’ statement, “They occupy no one city, but settle in large numbers in every town,”²⁸⁴ is still puzzling.²⁸⁵ They held to strict providence.
The Zealots.
Josephus speaks of a fourth philosophy which is similar to that of the Phari­sees but has a passion for liberty that is almost unconquerable (cf. Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13).²⁸⁶ Thackeray denies the equation of this group with the Zealots (note the above citation). Josephus does not call them Zealots.
The Herodians.
They are mentioned in the New Testament twice (Matt. 22:16; Mark 12:13, 3:6). Nothing is known about them. Riesner argues that they are Essenes.²⁸⁷ Apparently they sup­ported Herod and hence Rome.
3. The Scriptures
The returning community put great emphasis upon the law. The section in Nehemiah 8 illustrates several things and raises a number of questions. First is the place of the public reading of the Law (note the pulpit or dais). Secondly, the law was explained (inter­preted?). Does this latter indicate the beginning of the Targumim? In any event, Ezra the “Ready Scribe’’ was very much involved in the text of the OT.
The Scribes.
The scribes were a class of learned men who made the systematic study of the law and its exposition their profession. They were similar to the Pharisees but they are not to be equated. Ezra was the first scribe in the New Testament sense. The Hebrew word is sopherim. They bitterly opposed Jesus.
23. QUMRAN AND THE INTERTESTAMENTAL PERIOD
A. Background
The general background on the finding of the scrolls in 1947 can be read in any introductory work. J. C. Trevor, who photographed the large Isaiah scroll in 1948 tells his version of the story in The Untold Story of Qumran, Westwood, NJ: Revell, 1965.
The initial discoveries took place in the caves of Wadi Qumran (a wadi is a dry gulch through which water runs as a torrent during the rainy season). Khirbet Qumran (Khirbet means “ruin”) is the site of a settlement which excavated by the archaeologist after the scroll find.
The scrolls were found in the following areas: The Eleven Qumran caves, Wadi Murabba”t (2nd c. A.D.), Desert caves south of Ein Gedi, Masada. Excavated by Yadin and published with that title (Masada), Khirbet Mird (Christian monastery at this place). If anything is New Testament it will be here (c. 500 A.D.).
There are two distinct aspects of Qumran to be considered: (1) The Essene sect and NT back­grounds and (2) the biblical text as represented at Qumran.
B. The Essene Sect
1. Who are the Qumran sectaries?
The people at Qumran are to be linked with the Essenes mentioned in Josephus (thirteen times in three works, three of which are significant: Life 1.2 #10-12; Wars, 2.8,1-3 #119-61; Ant. 18.1,2,5 #11,18-22), Philo, and Pliny (Natural History).²⁸⁸
The reasons for the linkage are (1) Josephus mentions three major groups within Judaism (Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes). If these people are not Essenes, there is another major, uniden­tified group. (2) The similarities between Josephus” description and what is found in the writings is too striking to be coin­cidental.

Josephus first mentions the Essenes in the period of Jonathan Maccabaeus around 150 B.C. He refers specifically to an Essene called Judas in the time of Aristobulus I (105-104 B.C.). His last mention is of a certain John the Essene who joined the war against Rome.²⁸⁹
The reconstruction of their history varies with the scholars. Part of it depends on how one is to interpret “Damascus.” Dupont-Sommer believes it is to be interpreted literally, and that the group fled to Damascus to avoid persecution by the hostile priesthood in Jerusalem linked with the Has­moneans.²⁹⁰ Cross, on the other hand, leans toward a view that “Damascus” is a “pro­phet­ic name” given to Qumran based on Amos 5:25-27.²⁹¹
While there continue to be many differences of opinion on the reconstruction of the history of the sect at Qumran, Dupont-Sommer”s hypothesis is as follows:
a. The basic events described in the Commentary on Habakkuk and The Damascus Docu­ment took place in the first century B.C.
b. The Teacher of Righteousness began his ministry towards the end of the second century B.C.
c. This ministry continued during the whole of the reign of Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 B.C.) and during the reign of Alexandra (76-67 B.C.).
d. In the conflict between Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II (67-63 B.C.), persecution was directed against the sect.
e. In that persecution, the Teacher of Righteousness was condemned and executed and the sectaries, shortly before the capture of Jerusalem by Pompey (63 B.C.), fled to the land of Damascus.
f. This Damascus exile lasted during the whole of the priestly rule of Hyrcanus II (63-40 B.C.).
g. The sect then resettled in Judaea and in particular in Qumran.
h. After about a hundred years, at the time of the great Jewish War (A.D. 66-70), the Essenes again left their home in Qumran after hiding their sacred books in the near-by caves.

i. The “Kittim” in the writings refer to the Romans. The Wicked Priest is John Hyrcanus II, who eventually was backed by the Romans, but was led into captivity by the Parthians.²⁹²
2. Some of the ideas of the sect.
a. There was a priest messiah and a king messiah (1QS 9:11; 1QS^annexe 2:11-22). This reflects a similar idea in the Old Testament of Moses/Aaron; Zerubbabel/Jeshua. 1QS 9:11 speaks of the messiahs of Aaron and Israel. This is similar to the theology of the Testament of the Twelve where the priestly messiah is from Levi (Levi 18; Judah 24; cf Sim. 7:2; Levi 2:11 and especially Judah 21:2-5.
b. According to 1QS 9:11 a “prophet” was to come. This may have connections with Elijah in Mal 4:5 (cf also 1 Mac. 4:46), but it should be primarily linked to Deuteronomy 18:18-19 (cf. John 1:21).²⁹³
c. A fragment containing teaching about Melchizedek (11QMelch) sheds light on the commu­nity”s views about the Old Testament personage.²⁹⁴ The Melchizedek of Qumran is a chief of sons of heaven and is referred to as !yhla and la. Some link him with Michael the archan­gel (Schürer) but others are less positive (de Jonge and van der Woude). See the latter two authors in the article referred to in the footnote for a very stimulating discussion about the identification of this individual and the relationship of that teaching to the New Testament. See also Fitzmyer”s bibliography on this fragment (two pages).
“The Qumran sect was not a small ephemeral group. Its substantial community at Qum­ran persisted some two centuries or more. Moreover, it was not restricted to Qumran, but, as we know from its documents, counted its camps and settlements in the villages of Judah. Its own sectarian literature is enormous, and of profound and direct influence on Jewish Christian and Chris­tian movements of the first century A.D. and later.”²⁹⁵
3. What influence did the Essenes have on Christianity?

Dupont-Sommer”s statement on this issue bears quoting. “It should be said at once that for the historian who considers the subject with the necessary broad-mindedness and serenity, this sect is undoubtedly representative of one of the most lofty and fruitful mystical movements of the ancient world, and is certainly one of the glories of ancient Judaism. On the other hand, al­though the Essenes, more than any other Jewish movement, were privileged to prepare the way for the institution of Christianity, the latter”s originality remains impregnable despite the affinities and borrowings which the new texts reveal.”²⁹⁶
He later points out that John the Baptist had his origins in the desert, that Jesus was linked with John and also was tempted in the desert. He also believes that the Teacher of Righteous­ness linked himself with the servant songs as did Jesus. He argues that, in spite of the originality of the new Messiah,”. . . the primitive Christian Church was rooted in the Jewish sect of the New Covenant, the Essene sect, to a degree none would have suspected, and that it borrowed from it a large part of its organization, rites, doctrines, “patterns of thought” and its mystical and ethical ideals.”²⁹⁷
At the same time he points out six differences between Jesus Christ and the Teacher of Righ­teousness that prevent any confusion between the two men.
a. The TR was a priest of the tribe of Levi.

b. The TR was revered as the Priest-Messiah, the Messiah of Aaron; Jesus was recog­nized as the Messiah of Israel, the King-Messiah, son of David.

c. The TR exercised his ministry essentially in Judaea.

d. The TR was so superstitiously venerated that the disciples would not utter his name.

e. The TR was a severe ascetic, charitable no doubt, but hard on himself and others. Re­garded all contact with sinners as a defilement.

f. The TR was the exponent of a mysterious Gnosis elaborated with the help of the highest wisdom then circulating in the world and reserved for initiates; Jesus was a popular preacher, sprung from humble people and expressing himself in simple language with compari­sons full of freshness and life.²⁹⁸

A quote from Beckwith is appropriate here in connection with references to pseudepigrapha by the NT writers: “If however, one links Christianity, not narrowly with Essenism, but more broadly with the apocalyptic and prophetic movements active in the first century (of which Essenism was an important example), one comes near to an answer. . .”²⁹⁹ “But though the Epis­tle of Jude may at first have played a part in popularizing the Pseudepigraphy, was it the author”s intention to do so? One may reasonably doubt whether it was. For, though his book has strong links with other New Testament books, his is the only one to make distinct reference to this kind of litera­ture. There was evidently no general desire among the leaders and writers of the apos­tolic church to popularize such literature. Even the Revelation, which is itself an apoca­lypse, owes only very intangible debts to the pseudonymous apocalypses.”³⁰⁰ Beckwith rejects the idea that where the NT writer quotes a pseudepigraph that quote is an indication of the historici­ty of the item. He prefers to argue for a use of haggadic material to make a point.³⁰¹
C. Materials from Qumran
The customary sigla are based on the source of the piece (Cave 1, Qumran, e.g.) and the contents. 1QIsa^a, e.g., means the first scroll of Isaiah from cave 1 at the site of Qumran.
1. The Eleven Caves of Qumran
a. Cave 1
(1). The great Isaiah scroll (1QIsa^a) contains the complete text of Isaiah. It is basically MT in form, but full of scriptio plene forms (use of consonants for vowels). It has many harmonizations (importation of text from similar passages). 1QIsa^a does not have much to contribute textually because it is close to the MT and has consists of rather sloppy copying. It is collated in BHS.
(2). A commentary on Habakkuk (1QpHab; p=pesher or commentary).
(3). The Rule of the Community (1QS) called the Manual of Discipline by Burrows. The above three have been published with Burrows, Trevor and Brownlee as editors in Vol. I of The DSS of St. Mark”s Monastery. Vol. II contains plates and transcriptions of the Manual of Discipline (ASOR, New Haven, 1951). This work is the basic introduction to the theology and conduct of the Essenes at Qumran.
(4). A second (very fragmentary) copy of Isaiah (1QIsa^b).
(5). A sectarian collection of thanksgiving psalms. The Hymn Scroll (1QH[odayot]). This scroll was very popular at Qumran and repre­sented the hymn book of the community. For a link of the community with Isaiah”s messianic teaching, see Hymn E:7-9.³⁰² For a link with the “shoot” see Hymn L:10, 19.³⁰³

(6). The War Between the Children of Light and Children of Darkness (1QM, milamah=war). See Y. Yadin, mgylt mlhmat bny “r bbny šk mmgylwt mdbr yhwdh (Jerusalem, 1955) to appear in English. J. Van der Ploeg, Le rouleau de la guerre, Leiden, 1959. This book reflects the Old Testament teaching about the Day of Yahweh when the people of God will triumph over all their enemies. This work describes the conduct and strategy of that war.
(7). The Genesis Apocryphon is a paraphrase and elaboration of Genesis in Aramaic (edited by N. Avigad and Y. Yadin, Jerusalem, 1956).
(8). Seventy fragmentary MSS, biblical, apocryphal, apocalyptic, liturgical published in 1955 in first volume of Discoveries in the Judean Desert (including 1QS^a, a group of blessings in the same hand as the community rule).
b. Cave 2. No impressive finds.
c. Cave 3. The most important find was a copper scroll published in DJD. It listed over 200 tons of treasure.
d. Cave 4. This is the most important of all the caves. Tens of thousands of fragments were found. 382 MSS have been identified. About one-fourth are biblical. All the books of the Hebrew canon except Esther are represented.
(1). The best preserved MS of the biblical lot is 4QSam^a which contains both books of Samuel on a single roll. 47 of 57 columns are preserved in fragmentary form. It is very important textually in that it seems to belong to a textual family known only in the LXX (although it contains unique readings and sometimes agrees with MT against LXX).
(2). A fragment of the book of Chronicles was found here. It is worm-eaten, and only four complete words remain.
(3). Here was found a fairly extensive group of fragments belonging to a late (Herodian) MS of Numbers (4QNum^b). The text holds a middle position between the old Samaritan and the old Greek (Cross, Ancient Library of Qumran).
(4). The three oldest MSS turned up here. They are presumably master scrolls, imported to the community. Samuel (4QSam^b) fragments (225 B.C.), Jeremiah (4QJer^a) and Exodus (4QEx^f), the latter has only a column and a few tatters remaining.

(5). Daniel shows up in a script of the late second century B.C. “In some ways its antiquity is more striking than that of the oldest MSS from Qumran since it is no more than about a half century younger than the autograph of Daniel. It is thus closer to the original edition of a biblical work than any biblical MS in existence, unless it be the Rylands Fragment of John from the first half of the second century A.D.” Cross, Ancient Library of Qumran, p. 43!!!
(6). A group of MSS in paleo-Hebrew script contains five Pentateuchal MSS and some fragments of Job. There is a superb specimen of Exodus which presents a text type related to the Samaritan recension of Exodus (Skehan, JBL 74 (1955) 182-87). The biblical scrolls span in date about three centuries. A few archaic specimens carry us back to the end of the third century. The majority date from the first century B.C. and the first Christian century, the period terminating with the death of the community center in A.D. 68.
(7). Another large portion of Cave 4 documents belongs to the category of Apocryphal and Pseudepigraphical works in both Hebrew and Aramaic: Tobit, Jubilees, Psalms of Joshua, pseudo-Jeremianic works, Testaments of Levi and Naphtali, sources of the later Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, Enoch and an apocryphal Daniel literature and examples.
(8). Also occurring are biblical “commentaries” (peshers): Psalms, Hosea, Isaiah, (cf. Micah, Zephania, Psalms, and Habakkuk from Cave 1). See DJD, I, pp. 77-82.
(9). There are also cryptic script documents which were deciphered but proved to be more of above.
(10). Miscellaneous materials were found which were a series of calendrical works relating to the zodiac, feast days, courses of the priests, etc.
e. Caves 5 and 6. There were significant but minor fragments from biblical books (see DJD, III.
f. Caves 7 through 10. Practically nothing was left because of collapse and erosion.
g. Cave 11. Here was found the beautiful 28 column MS with two thirds of the height of each column preserved (11QPs^a). It comes from the early first century A.D. and contains parts of 35 canonical Psalms and eight other compositions. It was published by J. A. Sanders in DJD, IV.
h. Murabba”at
(1). Here was the earliest papyrus in Hebrew ever found in Palestine. It is a palimsest listing names and numbers possibly from the 8th century B.C. in the archaic script (DJD, II, plate 2).

(2). First and early second centuries A.D. texts from Simon bar Kokheba (132-135 A.D.) in Greek, Aramaic and Hebrew (plate 46).
(3). The most important item is a magnificent scroll of the Greek Minor Prophets from the 2nd century A.D. Its four columns are almost perfectly preserved (Barthélemy, Les Devanciers d”Aquila, p. 168 places it in the middle of the first century A.D; plates on pp. 169-70).
j. Khirbet Mird. New Testament materials from later Christian era were found here.
k. Masada. The principle find here was a copy of a Hebrew Ecclesiasticus.
l. The Damascus Document (CD). Fragments of this work were found many years ago in a Cairo geniza. They have now been linked through other fragments at Qumran with the Essenes. “This Jewish sect of the Covenant which, driven out of Judaea by Persecution, sought refuge in the region of Damascus and remained there for a certain time before returning to its own country. Convinced that the Teacher of Righteousness, whom the High Priest had put to death, would return at the end of time, his disciples regrouped and reorganized themselves, and settled in their land of exile to await the great Day of God”s supreme Visitation.”³⁰⁴

24. NEW TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGYPALESTINE AND SYRIA
A. General
Archaeology has not made so great a contribution to New Testament studies as it has to the Old Testament. Part of the reason for this is that Greek and Roman history are so well attested that New Testament finds do not stand out as sharply in contrast. In addition, the period under discussion is too brief to leave much in the way of archaeological evidence.
Bethlehem may be mentioned in Amarna letters.³⁰⁵ It has a 2500” elevation. Three and one half miles south is the Herodium, a stronghold of Herod the Great (he is thought to have been buried there, though his body has never been found). Southeast on the west side of the Dead Sea is Masada (stronghold, 1 Sam. 23). It was fortified anew by Herod and burned by the Romans in A.D. 73.
Jerusalem. Since the Israeli occupation of Jerusalem in 1967, the Jewish quarter and the south temple area have been excavated. See for example N. Avigad”s discussion in Discovering Jerusalem (Israel: Shikmona Pub. Co., 1980). Much of the city, of course, cannot be excavated because of continuous habitation. The description of the fortification of the walls including the various towers and the beautiful temple all constructed by Herod are amply described in Josephus.³⁰⁶
B. Early Evidence for Christianity (See Finegan, Light from the Ancient Past).
1. Ossuaries (bone boxes). Talpioth (1945) a suburb of Jerusalem. There was found a coin of Agrippa I and pottery of late Hellenistic and early Roman style from about the middle of the first century A.D. before A.D. 70. Three have Hebrew inscriptions: Simeon Barsaba, Miriam daughter of Simeon and Mattathias. Two have Greek inscriptions: Ihsou iou Ihsou Alwq, on the last is a cross. Alwq may mean “to wail,” or twl[ (“taken up [to Jesus]”?), or a proper name.

2. Tombs on the Mount of Olives from the first century A.D. contained 36 ossuaries. The names Jairus, Martha, Mary, Salome, Simon bar Jonah were inscribed. On one is a “Judah proselyte of Tyre” (With a Constantine monograph standing for “Jesus Christ, King). Another has the same monograph and a plus sign which probably refers to the cross.
3. The fate of Jewish Christianity was sealed with the fall of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. (See BAR for a discussion on a Jewish Christian synagogue in Jerusalem). Stephen was stoned, James (Zebedee) was beheaded (Acts 12:2), James (the brother of the Lord) was thrown from the temple and stoned (Eusebius). Eusebius also says that at the time of the Jewish war there was a revelation to leave the city and go to Pella on the east side of the Jordan. Christian bishops of Pella are mentioned as late as the fifth and sixth centuries A.D.
The Decapolis
This was a kind of confederacy of ten Hellenistic towns. These towns were set free from Jewish control by Pompey. Gerasa (modern Jerash) has been excavated and was one of the most brilliant cities of the transjordan.
Samaria
The ancient city of Samaria was a Hellenistic rather than a Samaritan city in the time of Christ. Alexander the Great had planted colonists there. Herod rebuilt the city, changed its name to Sebaste (Augustus), and dedicated the temple to him.
Damascus. Aretus IV (2 Cor. 11:32) was a Nabatean King.
Caesarea
Underwater excavation has shown the accuracy of Josephus” description of this harbor city build by Herod the Great.³⁰⁷
Antioch on the Orontes
There were several Antiochs. This one (mentioned in Acts 13) was located on the Orontes River 20 miles from the Mediterranean Sea. The Romans made it a free city and the capital of Syria. There were good relations between the Jews and Gentiles. Josephus called it the third city in the empire.³⁰⁸

25. NEW TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGYASIA MINOR
A. Tarsus
The route from the Euphrates and Antioch converged and entered the city of Tarsus. The road then ran north to the Taurus Mountains thirty miles away. The Cilician Gates were an engineered pass through the mountains 100 yards in length. The city of Tarsus was located on a navigable river. It was important as a land and sea port. It is mentioned on the Black Obelisk (c. 842 B.C.). It became Hellenized and Pompey made Cilicia a Roman province in 64 B.C. and Tarsus the residence of the Roman governor. Tarsus was then made a free city. There was a university there.³⁰⁹
B. Cyprus (See Acts 13:4-7)
The island was captured by Thutmose III of Egypt (c. 1500 B.C.). It was colonized by Phoenicians and Greeks. Rome took it from Ptolemy Auletes c. 58 B.C. and made it a province. It was transferred to the Senate in 22 B.C. The governor had the title of Pro-consul. An inscription of the year A.D. 55 names Paulus as Pro-consul. This is an anchor date in New Testament chronology. The date of the inscription (A.D. 55) is not the same as the date of Paulus (A.D. 46-48?), but it describes an event of Paulus” period. The tenure of a Pro-consul was one year.³¹⁰
C. Cities of Galatia
1. Antioch (Acts 13:13-16)

Antioch of Pisidia was founded by Hellenists and named after Antiochus . It was a fortress against Pisidian highlanders and an island of Hellenism amidst Phrygian Asiatics. There are scant references to Jews, but there was an inscription of Debbora. She was married to a well-to-do man. There are several generations of a ruling family. These Jews were receptive and less narrow than Palestinian Jews. The Greeks were imported Magnesians (members of the Greek family), but the Phrygians were different from the people in the city. There must have been some in the city, but it was primarily Greek. Antioch was made a Roman colony in 25 B.C. The chief god was Men (not moon). There was also a female goddess exalted by the Phrygians. The religion was similar to that of the Canaanites. When Paul was at Antioch, the people who were not responsive were the aristocracy (cf. 13:50). There were important women there. The inhabitants, according to Ramsay, spoke Latin. The Coloni were against Paul.
2. Iconium (Acts 14:1-6)
Iconium is very similar to Damascus; it is high, has a river to its door, and mountains around it. It became famous under the Seljuks: “See all the world but see Conia.”
There was a flood tradition there. The name given after the flood was eikones (Greek: images). Ramsay gives the tradition as follows: King Nannakos lived before the flood to 300 years. He learned from an oracle that when he died, all men should perish. He called the people together for great weeping. “The weeping in the time of Nannakos” appears as a proverb in 270 B.C. and antedates Jewish influence which does not come into play until much later. (The Jews first settled in Iconium c. 280 B.C. under the Seleucids.) The gods made eikones from mud after the flood, hence, the name. Ramsay says it was an old Phrygian legend which was perhaps influenced by later Judaism but not originated by it. (The Gilgamesh Epic was known to the Hittites.)
Emperor Claudius (A.D. 41-54) paid attention to the organization of Lycaonia. Three cities were named after him: Claudiconium, Claudio-Derbe, Claudio-Laodicea. These were not colonies. Paul spent more time here. It was not ruled by an oligarchy. It became an important center for Christianity in Asia Minor. Christian cults were still in existence in the time of Ramsay.
3. Derbe
Derbe lies at the foot of the Taurus Mountains. A conspicuous mountain rises to 8,000 feet in the south. The various mountain names were changed to Christian ones, but pagan belief survived. Derbe was the rudest of the Pauline cities and evidenced little progress. It made no strong impression on Asia Minor Christianity. It was located on the “Imperial Road.” There was considerable western influence in this town.
4. Lystra
Lystra was beautiful and productive but off the main road. Berea and Lystra were more alike: rustic not cosmopolitan. Travelers may have used it as a rest place to return to Iconium. Both Lystra and Derbe were cities of Lycaonia and ranked as villages under the Anatolian system. Acts 14:6 means that they were in Roman Lycaonia (Galati Lycaonia). Lystra was a colony but a young one compared to Antioch.

5. Summary: Tarsus was the most oriental; Antioch was a Hellenistic city or colony. All were mixed.³¹¹
D. Ephesus
Paul spent three years here (Acts 19:1, 8-10; 20:31) the longest in any city. Ephesus was Asiatic and Greek, going through the usual changing of hands. According to Wright, the population was about 250,000. It was on a river three miles from the sea, and its location caused it to rank with Antioch in Syria and Alexandria in Egypt. However, the river had to be dredged.
Diana (Roman name) or Artimus (Greek name) represented the mother goddess who was Asiatic and similar to the goddesses in the Canaanite pantheon (fertility cult). Her temple was one of the seven wonders of the world. Excavations go back to the strata of the eighth century B.C. There was a greater temple in 550 B.C. which was burned in 356 B.C. The Hellenistic temple was built in 350 B.C. and paid for by Alexander the Great. The city was sacked in 262 A.D. and the temple destroyed. The platform was 239 feet by 418 and the temple itself was 160 feet by 340. There were 100 columns over 55 feet high. Some were sculptured to twenty feet. The statue may have been sculptured from a meteorite (fallen from Jupiter, Acts 19:35). The month Artimision (March-April) brought tourists and pilgrims. Perhaps this was why Paul tarried (Acts 19:26).
The theater held about 25,000 people and the finest street was called the Arkadiane. It extended 1735 feet from the theater to the harbor and was paved with marble.³¹²

26. NEW TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGYEUROPE
A. Philippi
The Egnatian Way was once the main thoroughfare of Philippi. Pieces of the curb stone are still visible. A small river flows about a mile from the town and must have been the one in Acts 16 (if no synagogue was available, Jews were to meet by a flowing stream).
Excavations were carried out by the French École Francaise d”Athènes (1914-1938). The Roman forum was 300 feet by 150 feet. There were temples overlooking it on each side. There was a raised platform for orators and magistrates. It was probably to this that Paul and Silas were dragged. The current ruins date from the second century A.D.
The plain of Philippi was the site of the battle for the control of the Roman empire after the death of Julius Caesar. In 42 B.C., Antony and Octavian there defeated Caesar”s murders, Brutus and Cassius. To celebrate the victory the conquerors made the city a Roman colony, and veterans of the battle were among the first citizens (coloni, cf. politeusqe in Phil. 1:27). Women seemed to be prominent in the church. There was no synagogue, yet the Judaizers came in.³¹³
B. Thessalonica
This city was founded by Cassander (315 B.C.) and named after the sister of Alexander the Great. It was made a free city because of its support of Antony and Octavian. It was the most populous city of Macedonia and today is a modern, important sea port. There is an arch in Thessalonica with the inscription “In the time of the politarchs . . .” a word that is found elsewhere only in Luke (it was on the Varder gate, now removed for modern construction).
C. Berea
This town was quiet and off the beaten track. There was a better of class of people here, and both Jews and Gentiles were saved.
D. Athens

The city of athens has been very well excavated. The acropolis is 512 feet high and comes from the golden age of Pericles. After the sacred precincts of the acropolis, ranks the agora. Areopagus (Hill of Ares, god of war, hence, Mars hill in Latin) is a bare rocky hill 377 feet high. Northwest of the acropolis was Pericles” criminal court. Paul spoke before the city officials. Unknown gods were common. Paul viewed Athens, not in her aesthetic splendor, but as a city in raw heathenism. His sermon was appropriate and forceful, but not successful. Here were the Stoics, Epicureans, and much sophistry.
E. Corinth
Going to Corinth involves moving from the intellectual to the commercial center of the world. Shipping went from Corinth to Cenchreae. The Corinthian Canal, built in 1881, is four miles long and allows sailors to avoid a 200 mile trip. Corinth became famous because of its port facilities. The religion of Aphrodite was practiced here. Archaeological work has uncovered the forum and an inscription mentioning Erastus, a chamberlain who was an important person (see Rom 16:23). There is an inscription “Synagogue of the Hebrews” from c. 100 B.C. to 200 A.D. Gallio was Proconsul during Paul”s time there. His name appears on an inscription at Delphi dated c. July, 51. The Isthmian Games were held between the Olympian games.³¹⁴
F. Italy
The town of Heraculaneum, 15 miles east of Puteoli, was destroyed in 79 A.D. It has an upper room with a cross. Paul spent seven days here (Acts 28:14). Pompeii has a strange inscription which may be Aramaic in Latin characters. (Perhaps: “A strange mind has drive A. and he has pressed in among the Christians who make a man a prisoner as a laughing stock.”)
The streets of Rome were nine feet wide to allow for balconies. There were 60 miles of streets which were cluttered with refuse and people. Finegan discusses the living conditions.³¹⁵ The population was about 4,100,000 (quadruple today”s population).