Entomology plan: entomology insects have diversified on changing maxima, minima, means, and variance

ENTOMOLOGY

PLAN:

ENTOMOLOGY
INSECTS HAVE DIVERSIFIED
ON CHANGING MAXIMA, MINIMA, MEANS, AND VARIANCE

Entomology (Latin: — insects and ...logy) is the science of insects. He studies the structure of insects, their lifestyle, their individual and historical development, diversity, distribution on the earth, their relationship with their habitat, etc. According to the task, theoretical, that is, general E. and practical E. are distinguished. General E. insect morphology, embryology, physiology, biochemistry, ethology, entomogeography, paleontology, systematics, etc. are divided into disciplines. These subjects can be divided into smaller sections according to the object of study. For example, within systematics, coleopterology studies hard-winged birds, lepidopterology studies butterflies, and myrmicology studies ants.

The object of study of practical E. is pests of agricultural plants and products, parasites of humans, animals and plants, as well as beneficial insects in the national economy and nature. Practical E. also, according to its task, forest pests (forest E.si), pests of agricultural crops (agricultural E.si), insects parasitizing domestic and wild animals (veterinary E.si), human parasites (medical E. si) and mulberry and oak, which produce products used by humans, are divided into sciences that study silkworms (sericulture), bees (beekeeping).

The science of E. was introduced only in the 17th century by the Dutch scientist Ya. Swammerdam's anatomy and development of bees (1669), Italian scientists M. Malpighi's anatomy and development of silkworms (1686) and F. Buonanni's structure of insect mouthparts were formed based on the works of German scientist I. Gedart on insect metamorphosis. The Swedish scientist K. Linnaeus founded the modern systematics of insects. He describes 1936 species of insects, divides them into 9 families based on the structure of their wings and establishes a binary nomenclature. In the 19th century, English entomologists W. Corby, J. Westwood and J. Lebbok described several more species. The French entomologist P. Laterl proposed a class size systematics of insects. 1831. Ch. With the emergence of Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" (1859), insect systematics began to be structured on a phylogenetic basis. In the second half of the 19th century, major works on the anatomy and metamorphosis of insects appeared. Russian scientists N. P. Wagner discovered pedogenesis (1862), A. A. Tikhomirov discovered artificial parthenogenesis in silkworms (1886), A. O. Kovalevsky discovered a leaf in insects (1869-71), and P. Marshal discovered polyembryony (1898).

During the 20th century, a huge amount of material on the entomofauna of the world was collected; many discoveries were made in the field of theoretical and practical E. By the end of the 20th century, more than 1 million species of insects were identified; the number of genera approached 40, insect taxonomy was revised and improved. In E., new and more sophisticated methods (electron microscopy, karyosystematics) and computer technology, quantitative taxonomy and taxonomic analysis began to be used in systematics (American scientist R. Sokal, Russian scientist Ye.S. Smirnov, etc.). Physiology of insects, respiration (Danish scientist A. Krogh), subtraction (English scientist V.B. Unglesworth), sensory organs, reception of polarized light and aiming at it (German scientist K. Frisch) and other issues began to be studied on a large scale. The release of hormones of the central nervous system of insects (Polish scientist S. Kopets, 1917), ecdysones (A. Butenand, 1954), juvenile hormones (K. Williams, 1956) controlling the development of insects were discovered.

In the second half of the 20th century, the discovery of pheromones that distinguish insects and control their behavior (German scientist A. Butenand and others) increased interest in the study of insect behavior. In the middle of the 20th century, with the discovery of the language of bees (German zoologist K. Frisch), ethology became one of the leading branches of E.

The first major studies in the field of insect ecology are associated with American scientists V. Shelford (1913) and R. Champen (1931). The German scientist G. Blunk (1922) studies the interaction of insects with their habitat and shows that their development is related to temperature. Norwegian biologist K. Fegri (1975) summarizes the complex relationship between insects and entomophilous plants.

Research in the field of applied E. began to develop on the border of the 19th and 20th centuries. The first major works were devoted to the study of pests of forest, field and field crops (German scientists Yu. Ratzeburg, 1837-44; G. Nerdlinger, 1869; Kaltenkh, 1874; Russian scientist F.P. Keppen, 188184).

The development of medicine E. began with the study of the mosquito that spreads malaria (Russian scientist V. Ya. Danilovsky, 1888; Italian scientist E. Martini, 1923, 1941, etc.). In the development of medicine and veterinary medicine, Russian scientists V.N. Beklemishev's gland
Insects have diversified through more than 450 million y of Earth’s changeable climate, yet rapidly shifting patterns of temperature and precipitation now pose novel challenges as they combine with decades of other anthropogenic stressors including the conversion and degradation of land. Here, we consider how insects are responding to recent climate change while summarizing the literature on long-term monitoring of insect populations in the context of climatic fluctuations. Results to date suggest that climate change impacts on insects have the potential to be considerable, even when compared with changes in land use. The importance of climate is illustrated with a case study from the butterflies of Northern California, where we find that population declines have been severe in high-elevation areas removed from the most immediate effects of habitat loss. These results shed light on the complexity of montane-adapted insects responding to changing abiotic conditions. We also consider methodological issues that would improve syntheses of results across long-term insect datasets and highlight directions for future empirical work.
MANAGE ALERTS
From invasive species to habitat loss, pesticides, and pollution, the stressors of the Anthropocene are many and multifaceted, but none are as geographically pervasive or as likely to interact with all other factors as climate change (1, 2). For these reasons, understanding the effects of anthropogenic climate change on natural systems could be considered the defining challenge for the ecological sciences in the 21st century (3). It is of particular interest to ask how insects will respond to contemporary climate change because they are the most diverse lineage of multicellular organisms on the planet and are of fundamental importance to the functioning of freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. The issue also has new urgency in light of recent and ongoing reports of insect declines from around the globe (4). Insects and climate change have been discussed elsewhere (5–8), and our goal here is not to cover all aspects of the problem. Instead, we focus on recent discoveries and questions inspired by continuous long-term monitoring of insect populations. Although other sampling designs can of course offer important insights (9), we focus on long-term monitoring as being uniquely powerful for understanding the influence of climatic fluctuations on animal populations because of the ability to decompose complex temporal trends into effects driven by different factors (10, 11).
In the sections below, we compare climate change with other stressors and examine multifaceted impacts in terms of climate means, limits, and extremes. We then discuss the geography of climate change with particular focus on the responses of montane insects, with a case study from the butterflies of Northern California that illustrates the value of long-term observations that span a major gradient of land use intensity. Two areas that we do not cover in detail are the theoretical foundations of climate change research (12) and community-level consequences, including altered trophic interactions (13). As a qualitative survey of the state of the field, we have gathered insect monitoring studies that are from relatively undisturbed locations or that span a land use gradient. We only include studies that encompass at least 10 y of continuous sampling, examine 10 or more species, and analyze climatic data in some fashion (Table 1 and SI Appendix, Table S1). It is important to note that 10 y is a useful minimum cutoff, but we acknowledge that it might not be sufficient to separate population fluctuations from long-term trends in many cases (14–16). Table 1 provides a summary of the monitoring programs that met our criteria, while SI Appendix, Table S1 breaks these out further by publication and includes an abbreviated summary of findings.