Encyclopedia of Islam

Further reading: John H. Hanson, Migration, Jihad, and 

Muslim Authority in West Africa (Bloomington: Indiana 

University Press, 1996); B. O. Oloruntimehin, The 

Segu Tukulor Empire (London: Longman Group, 1972); 

David Robinson, The Holy War of Umar Tal (Oxford: 

Oxford University Press, 1985); John Ralph Willis, In 

the Path of Allah: The Passion of al-Hajj ’Umar (London: 

Frank Cass, 1989).

Umayyad Caliphate

 

(661–750)

The Umayyad Caliphate was a Sunni dynasty that 

expanded the area of Islamic rule and developed 

a distinct Islamic culture. During the years of 

Umayyad rule, the Islamic state changed from a 

coalition of Arab tribes to a centralized empire 

that stretched from present-day Pakistan to the 

Atlantic Ocean and included the Arabian Pen-

insula,  i

ran

,  e

gypt

, much of North Africa, and 

the Iberian Peninsula. This vast area was held 

together by an Islamic culture that included a 

common language and coinage. At the same time, 

the 

caliphate

 created permanent divisions within 

the Muslim community, or 

umma

.

The Umayyads came to power in the turbulent 

period following the death of U

thman

 

ibn

 a

FFan

K  686  

Umar Tal

---

(r. 644–655), the third 

caliph

, and the acces-

sion of a

li

 

ibn

  a

bi

  t

alib

 (r. 656–661). Uthman’s 

cousin, Muawiya, who was governor of s

yria

,

refused to recognize Ali as caliph. Civil war broke 

out between supporters of Ali and Muawiya; Ali 

was assassinated, and Muawiya declared himself 

caliph. Muawiya was a member of the Umayyad 

family, the wealthiest and most powerful branch 

of the q

Uraysh

  in  m

ecca

. Muawiya moved the 

capital of the Islamic state from m

edina

 to d

amas

-

cUs

, Syria. He also changed the caliphate in fact, 

if not in principle, to a dynasty by naming his son 

as his successor, thus setting a precedent for the 

caliphate passing from father to son.

Under the Umayyads, the process of Islamic 

expansion began again. Parts of Egypt that had 

fallen under Byzantine control were retaken. 

Umayyad armies moved west across North Africa 

to the Atlantic coast. In 711 they crossed the Strait 

of Gibraltar and began the conquest of a

ndalUsia

(Spain); soon, the entire Iberian Peninsula was 

under Muslim control. Their advance into Europe 

was finally stopped in 732 at the Battle of Tours, 

when Charles Martel of France won a decisive 

engagement against a Muslim raiding force. In the 

east, the expansion continued, eventually reach-

ing as far as the borders of present-day i

ndia

.

As the Umayyads increased the extent of their 

empire, they set in place systems to unite the 

disparate peoples of the empire. Abd al-Malik (r. 

685–705) declared Arabic the official language 

of the empire. Up to this time, local govern-

ment had been conducted in the local language; 

now, all government business was conducted in 

Arabic. The Umayyads introduced a common 

coinage throughout the empire, called dinars. 

The common currency made it easier to conduct 

business between different parts of the empire. 

The Umayyads also spread Islamic religious archi-

tecture throughout the empire. When a region 

was conquered, a 

mosqUe

 was built for communal 

prayer and to give thanks to God. Although these 

mosques were built from local materials, they 

eventually featured the same essential elements: a 

minaret

, a 

mihrab

, and an ablution fountain. The 

introduction of a common language, currency, 

and religious architecture helped develop a dis-

tinctive Islamic culture.

After about 90 years of Umayyad rule, the 

empire faced serious internal challenges. By 732, 

the armies were making fewer conquests. This 

stopped the flow of captured wealth into the econ-

omy. At the same time, many non-Muslims within 

the empire had converted to Islam. As a result, 

they paid less in taxes, decreasing a steady source 

of revenue. The divisions within Islam itself also 

came to the fore. Muslims who had supported Ali 

as caliph because of his family ties to Muham-

mad were known as shiat Ali, “party of Ali,” or 

the Shia (see  s

hiism

). They saw the Umayyads 

as usurpers who had seized the caliphate from 

the rightful head of the Muslim community. This 

internal conflict was exploited by the Abbasids, 

who claimed the caliphate based on the descent 

of Abbas, Muhammad’s uncle. In 747 this dissen-

sion led to rebellion against the Umayyads; in 750 

the Umayyad caliphate was overthrown, and the 

a

bbasid

 c

aliphate

 began.

See also  a

rabic

 

langUage

 

and

 

literatUre

; 

fitna

.

Kate O’Halloran