Encyclopedia of Islam

Somalia

  See e

ast

 a

frica

.

song

  See 

music

; 

qawwali

.

soul and spirit

The life force that animates the body is com-

monly known as the soul or spirit. Comparative 

study shows that beliefs about the soul and spirit 

vary widely, based on different ideas about what a 

human being is and how humans are believed to 

be related to the wider universe in both its physi-

cal and metaphysical aspects. Native classifica-

tions for the life force and its related aspects can 

become quite complex and contradictory—even 

within a single culture or religious tradition. It 

has become associated with notions of breath, the 

heart, mind, reason, 

blood

, and body. The English 

word soul is old Germanic in origin and is thought 

to have originally been a translation of the ancient 

Greek word psych, which means “life,” “spirit,” or 

“consciousness.” These meanings are connected 

with the idea of the life breath, as is the term 

spirit, which is derived from Latin. In many reli-

gions the soul or spirit is believed to be separate 

from the body, having a preexistence and an after-

life and being able to leave the body temporarily 

during sleep, trances, or states of ecstasy. It is also 

often believed to be connected with beings such 

as sacred ancestors, deities, and a universal spirit 

or cosmic energy.

Islamic beliefs about the soul and spirit were 

first expressed in the Quran and later elaborated 

and systematized by theologians, philosophers, 

and mystics. These beliefs differ, beginning with 

a significant shift less than two centuries after 

Muhammad’s death in 632. Nevertheless, a degree 

of learned consensus was reached by theologians 

and traditionalists by the 10th century. The differ-

ing views about the soul and spirit can be attrib-

uted in part to variations of belief among local 

Muslim communities, sects, and movements but 

are also the results of several other factors. These 

include the heritage of indigenous pre-Islamic 

beliefs in Arabia and the wider Middle East, the 

Muslim reception of Jewish and Christian doc-

trines, and the influence of the ideas of Hellenistic 

philosophy

 and Neoplatonism, especially after 

Greek texts were translated into Arabic during 

the  a

bbasid

  c

aliphate

, particularly between the 

eighth and 10th centuries.

The two key Arabic terms for soul and spirit in 

Islam are, respectively, nafs and ruh, both of which 

are derived from Arabo-Semitic terms for “breath” 

or “respiration,” a requirement for life. The Hebrew 

cognates are nefesh and ruah,  which occur in the 

Bible. Both Arabic words occur in the Quran with 

equivalent meanings but also with meanings that 

differ.  Nafs  often denotes the “self” and is used 

reflexively with reference to humans, the 

Jinn

, God, 

and s

atan

. It is also used in the sense of “person.” 

Thus, the Quran states that it is God “who created 

you from a single person [nafs] and made from her, 

her mate, that he might find rest in her” (Q 7:189). 

Nafs is a feminine noun in Arabic, so this verse 

indicates that men and women originated in a sin-

gle feminine nafs (person). In several contexts the 

Quran gives nafs negative meanings; it connotes