Encyclopedia of Islam

secularism

---

ity, to non-Christian societies. Furthermore, and 

perhaps most importantly, disputes about the 

nature of secularism reflect different definitions 

of religion and cannot be reduced to political, 

economic, or social variables.

See also 

colonialism

; 

reForm

 

and

 

reneWal

movements

; 

theology

; W

esternization

.

Caleb Elfenbein

Further reading: Owen Chadwick, The Secularization 

of the European Mind in the 19th Century (Cambridge: 

Cambridge University Press, 1975); Louis Duprié, Pas-

sage to Modernity (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University 

Press, 1993); Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Lib-

eral Age 1798–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University 

Press, 1962).

Seljuk dynasty

With roots in the steppes of Central Asia, the 

Seljuk dynasty came to control much of the 

Middle East and Central Asia from the 11th to 

the 13th centuries. It largely relied on bands of 

nomadic Turkmen warriors for its fighting force 

and on Persian officials for its administration.

The early Seljuk clan was part of the ancient 

Oghuz tribal group of steppe nomads in Central 

Asia, out of which arose in the 10th century an 

individual named Seljuk, who was probably the 

first of his group to convert to Islam. His sons and 

grandsons were successful raiders, who, through 

skillful military operations, expanded their terri-

tory over much of i

ran

 by the mid-11th century.

In 1055 Seljuk’s grandson Toghril (d. 1063) 

entered b

aghdad

, overthrew the Buyid prince, and 

was consequently proclaimed 

sUltan

 by the Abas-

sid 

caliph

. This recognition by the caliph of a sepa-

rate sultan created an important division between 

spiritual authority and secular rule. In addition, the 

military power of the Sunni Seljuks, by halting the 

spread of s

hiism

 in the region, ensured the domi-

nance of s

Unnism

 in the central Islamic lands.

Toghril was succeeded by his nephew Alp Arslan 

(d. 1073), who named as his 

vizier

 the capable 

administrator Nizam al-Mulk (d. 1091). Together 

they were successful in consolidating Seljuk power 

in Anatolia. However, as conflicts arose over suc-

cession, the empire was gradually weakened over 

the next century. A branch of the Seljuk dynasty 

based in Konya maintained power in Anatolia until 

the beginning of the 14th century.

While the Seljuk dynasty held 

aUthority

 due 

to military might, it was also a great supporter of 

the arts, especially 

architectUre

. Many 

mosqUe

s 

and 

madrasa

s were built during their reign, which 

was also marked by a distinctive style of tomb 

architecture with cylindrical bases and conical 

roofs that resemble a certain type of tent in Cen-

tral Asia. Notable scholars such as 

al

-g

hazali

 (d. 

1111) and Umar Khayyam (d. 1123) flourished 

during the Great Seljuk Empire, and the mystic 

poet  J

alal

 

al

-d

in

  r

Umi

 (d. 1273) composed his 

poetry in the Anatolian Seljuk capital of Konya. 

The period of Seljuk rule also saw the formation 

of the first major 

dervish

 orders.

See also a

bbasid

 c

aliphate

; t

Urkey

.

Mark Soileau