Encyclopedia of Islam

Further reading: William L. Cleveland, A History of the 

Modern Middle East (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 

2000); Walter Laqueur and Barry Rubin, The Israel-

Arab Reader: A Documentary History of the Middle East 

Conflict, 6th ed. (New York: Penguin Books, 2001).

Ottoman dynasty

 

(1299–1922)

The Ottoman dynasty ruled over an empire in the 

Middle East and Balkans (southeastern e

Urope

) 

K  538  

Osama bin Ladin

---

between the 14th and 20th centuries. It takes its 

name from Osman (also spelled Uthman, r. 1281–

1326), a warrior who led a Turkish principality 

in the period following the demise of the Ana-

tolian Seljuk Sultanate (1077–1307). Ottoman 

control was consolidated in western Anatolia and 

extended to the Balkans under Osman’s successors 

Orhan I (r. 1326–62) and Murad I (r. 1362–89), 

and was extended eastward under Bayezid I (r. 

1389–1402). It was under Mehmed II (r. 1444–46, 

1451–81) that the Ottomans conquered Constan-

tinople, the last bastion of the Byzantine Empire, 

in 1453. With Constantinople (i

stanbUl

) as its 

capital, the Ottoman Empire continued to con-

solidate politically, administratively, and legally.

The empire reached its apogee in the 16th 

century. Sultan Selim I (r. 1512–20) conquered 

e

gypt

 and assumed control over the holy cities 

of m

edina

 and m

ecca

 and as far south as y

emen

.

His successor, Suleyman I (known as “the Mag-

nificent,” r. 1512–66), conquered Hungary, and 

even besieged Vienna in 1529. Their successes 

were due in part to a strong infantry, known as 

the Janissaries. But these successes were followed 

by military defeats in confrontations with the 

empire’s main rivals—the Austrians in Europe 

and the Safavids of i

ran

—in the late 16th century. 

The Ottoman Empire had been built on military 

conquests, and when expansion was checked, 

the empire began to decline. The 18th century 

was marked by confrontations with the empire’s 

new rival, Russia, and a complex web of political 

relationships developed between the empire and 

European powers.

Confronted with the military superiority of the 

West, the Ottomans began to institute moderniz-

ing reforms in the 19th century. The empire’s first 

constitution was enacted in 1876, but it was soon 

repealed by Abd al-Hamid II (r. 1876–1909), who 

preferred autocratic rule. The constitution was 

reenacted in 1908 in response to the Young Turk 

Revolution, and Abd al-Hamid II was deposed in 

1909. The empire had come to be dominated by 

the European powers, and the decision to side 

with the Germans in World War I brought about 

disastrous peace terms at the end of hostilies. 

With the British occupying Istanbul, m

UstaFa

k

emal

 a

tatUrk

 led a nationalist resistance, which 

eventually won independence and overthrew the 

Ottoman regime. The last of the Ottoman sultans, 

Mehmed VI (d. 1926), was deposed in 1922. His 

successor, Abd al-Majid II, continued to hold the 

title of 

caliph

 until this position was abolished 

in 1924. From the ashes of the Ottoman Empire 

modern Turkey emerged under the leadership of 

Ataturk (r. 1923–38). The Ottoman household 

has continued to survive to the present day, but it 

lacks any political authority. The current head of 

the House of Osman, Ertugrul Osman (b. 1912), 

lives in New York City.

Sunni Islam was the official religion of the 

Ottoman Empire, with the h

anaFi

 l

egal

 s

chool

as the basis of state law. The Ottomans also 

allowed Shafii law to prevail in areas where it had 

significant followings, such as Egypt, Syria, the 

Hijaz (western Arabia), and among the Kurds. 

Through conquests and population resettlements, 

Sunni Islam was brought to the Balkans. The 

Ottomans were generally opposed to s

hiism

, but 

they allowed some degree of latitude to the Alawis 

of Anatolia and Syria (where they are also known 

Sultan Ahmed Mosque (early 17th century), Istanbul, 

Turkey 

(Juan E. Campo)