Encyclopedia of Islam

Encyclopedia of  Islam

family, beginning with Ali ibn Abi Talib (d. 661). 

Since the seventh century the Shia have vied with 

the Sunnis about who is best suited to govern 

the community. In opposition to the Shia, Sunnis 

favored the caliphs—leaders chosen initially by 

consensus of community leaders on the basis of 

their experience and public reputation. In general 

the Shia believe that 1) their Imams have been 

divinely appointed and inspired; 2) they are free 

from sin and error; and 3) they are uniquely quali-

fied to provide religious guidance and insight. 

According to the Shia, the world itself could not 

exist without an Imam also being present in it. 

The largest branch of the Shia, known as the 

Twelve-Imam Shia, or Imamis, believe that all 

but one of their 12 Imams suffered martyrdom 

in defense of their faith and that the 12th will 

return after a period of concealment (ghayba) that 

began in 872 as a messiah (savior) to inaugurate 

a reign of universal justice prior to Judgment Day. 

The teachings of the Imams constitute the core of 

Shii hadith, and their tombs in Iraq and Iran have 

become sacred centers where pilgrims assemble to 

obtain their blessings and intercession.

The Ismailis constitute another division of the 

Shia, differing from the Twelvers with regard to 

whom they count among their Imams (beginning 

with their namesake Ismail, the elder son of Jaafar 

al-Sadiq [d. 765]), and the deference they give to 

the authority of the living Imam, rather than to 

those of the past. Even though they are only about 

10 percent of the estimated Shii population over-

all, they have played a significant role in shaping 

the course of Islamic history and intellectual life.

Sufism (tasawwuf) is a general designation 

used for the mystical expressions of Islam, wherein 

experiential knowledge of God and attainment of 

unity in or with him are primary goals. The term 

is based on the Arabic word suf, or wool, which 

was worn by Christian and Muslim ascetics in 

the Middle East. Sufis also explain it in relation 

to the Arabic word safa, which denotes the idea 

of purity. Although the historical roots of Sufism 

go back to individual ascetics who lived during 

the first centuries of Islamic history, most Sufis 

became organized into groups or orders known as 

“paths” (sing. tariqa) after the 11th century. Each 

tariqa consists of spiritual masters (known as 

shaykhs and pirs) who attract disciples and initi-

ate them into the mystical teachings and rituals of 

the group. Sufis turn to the Quran and sunna for 

inspiration and guidance, and trace the lineages of 

their doctrines and practices to Muhammad and 

the first generation of his followers. Most Sufis 

regard the sharia as a foundational aspect of their 

spiritual outlook, and their ranks are filled with 

followers from across the spectrum of the Muslim 

community—including Sunnis and Shiis, rulers, 

merchants, scholars, peasants, and ordinary labor-

ers as well. There are many different Sufi orders 

with branches around the world, although there 

are no precise statistics for them. They are often 

credited with having contributed to the spread of 

Islam, especially through the shrines containing 

the remains and relics of Sufi saints. These holy 

places have become the focal points for many 

forms of popular devotionalism and pilgrimage. 

Sufism has also produced a rich body of Islamic 

literature, including mystical poetry, hagiography, 

and devotional manuals.

In more recent times, other self-identified 

groupings of Muslims have appeared, sometimes 

labeled as radical Islamist and jihadist move-

ments. Also known as Islamic fundamentalists, 

a designation that is declining in use because of 

its imprecision, these groups are small in terms 

of actual numbers with respect to the total Mus-

lim population. They have surpassed, however, 

other Muslim groups in terms of the amount of 

attention given to them by governments, inter-

national organizations, and the global media. 

This is because of their involvement in activities 

aimed at fighting perceived enemies of Islam at 

home and abroad, which can take a heavy toll in 

terms of civilian casualties and economic damage. 

The central goal of many of jihadist groups is to 

establish governments that will enforce Islamic 

law, uphold public morality, and free Muslims 

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