Encyclopedia of Islam

Further reading: Farid Esack, Quran: A Short Introduc-

tion (Oxford, U.K.: Oneworld, 2001); W. Montgomery 

Watt and Richard Bell, Introduction to the Quran (Edin-

burgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1970).

Pilgrimage mural showing Quran verses and other reli-

gious sayings, Qurna, Egypt 

(Juan E. Campo)

aya

  

77  J

---

ayatollah

 

(Arabic: sign of God)

Ayatollah is a title bestowed on the most highly 

esteemed religious scholars in t

Welve

-i

mam

  s

hi

-

ism

 since the 19th century. It is held by experts 

of Islamic law, especially members of the U

sUli

s

chool

 based in i

ran

 and i

raq

. Religious educa-

tion in the Shii 

madrasa

 system and expertise in 

the practice of legal reasoning (

ijtihad

) are mini-

mum qualifications for becoming an ayatollah, 

but there are no other formal requirements. The 

madrasas of Qum (Iran), Mashhad (Iran), and 

Najaf (Iraq) are where ayatollahs have received 

their training and where many of them have 

taught. Ayatollahs gain their status by popular 

acclamation, which is demonstrated by their abil-

ity to collect religious taxes. They claim that they 

are representatives of the Hidden i

mam

, and the 

highest ranking among them are called “sources 

of emulation,” meaning that other Shia should fol-

low their rulings. These supreme leaders can also 

be called a “grand ayatollahs.” Ayatollahs have 

become especially powerful since the i

ranian

r

evolUtion

 

oF

 1978–79.

See also 

aUthority

; k

homeini

, r

Uhollah

; 

muj

-

tahid

; 

Ulama

.