Encyclopedia of Islam

Further reading: Sheila S. Blair and Jonathan M. Bloom, 

“Art and Architecture: Themes and Variations.” In The 

Oxford History of Islam, edited by John L. Esposito, 

215–267 (Oxford: Oxford University Press; Robert 

Hillenbrand,  Islamic Art and Architecture (New York: 

Thames & Hudson, 1999); Donald Malcolm Reid, 

Whose Pharaohs? Archaeology, Museums, and Egyptian 

National Identity from Napoleon to World War I (Cairo: 

The American University Press, 2002); Stephen Vernoit, 

ed., Discovering Islamic Art: Scholars, Collectors and Col-

lections (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2000).

asceticism

Asceticism involves a variety of religious practices 

that seek to control or manipulate the body and 

bodily desires in order to perfect one’s mental or 

spiritual condition. The word comes from Greek 

askesis, which means “training” or “exercise.” 

Although it has often been used in connection 

with the monastic practices of medieval Chris-

tianity (abstinence, fasting, poverty, vigils, and 

retreats), historians of religion now use the term 

to study asceticism comparatively in a variety 

of religions and cultures. It is a defining charac-

teristic of Hinduism, Buddhism, and, to a lesser 

extent, i

slam

.

Extreme asceticism and celibacy are officially 

refuted in Islam, because the 

Ulama

 emphasized 

moderation in religious practice. Nevertheless, 

a number of practices Muslims engage in have 

ascetic features, such as the duties of fasting 

during r

amadan

 and doing the 

haJJ

 to Mecca. In 

fasting, Muslims are required to completely avoid 

food, drink, and sexual activity during the day-

time for 30 consecutive days every year. Many also 

accompany these practices with 

prayer

 and late-

night vigils. Participants in the hajj are required 

to maintain ritual purity, wear simple garments, 

abstain from sex, avoid harming 

animal

 life, and 

avoid incurring violence. Shaving, haircuts, nail 

clipping, and wearing perfume or make-up are 

also banned during the hajj, which lasts about 

six days annually. Even 

almsgiving

 (zakat) has an