Encyclopedia of Islam

Further reading: Oleg Grabar, The Formation of Islamic 

Art (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1973); 

Robert Hillenbrand, Islamic Architecture: Form, Func-

tion, and Meaning (Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh 

Press, 1997); Renata Holod and Hasan-Uddin Khan, 

The Mosque and the Modern World: Architects, Patrons, 

and Designs since the 1950s (London: Thames & Hud-

son, 1997); George Michell, ed., Architecture of the 

Islamic World: Its History and Social Meaning (London: 

Thames & Hudson, 1978).

Arkoun, Muhammad

 

(1928–  )  noted 

modern Muslim philosopher and intellectual

Muhammad Arkoun is one of the most prolific 

and academically influential liberal Muslim intel-

lectuals of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. 

He is among the first generation of Muslim intel-

lectuals who have intentionally directed their 

works towards Western audiences and people 

living in the majority Muslim world. Most of his 

works have appeared originally in French and 

later have been translated into Arabic and other 

languages.

Arkoun was born on January 2, 1928, in the 

Berber village of Taourirt-Mimoun in a

lgeria

.

He has written more than 100 books and articles 

and has lectured throughout the world. He is a 

senior research fellow and member of the board 

The Court of the Lions in the Alhambra, Granada, 

Spain (13th/14th century) 

(Federico R. Campo)