Mecca. By the time of his death in 632, an Islamic
empire was in its first stages of development,
with its center in Medina. However, as the empire
expanded, its capital was moved, first to d
amas
-
cUs
under the U
mayyad
c
aliphate
, then to b
agh
-
dad
under the a
bbasid
c
aliphate
. As the Islamic
empire lost power, the Hijaz, or western area of
Arabia where Mecca and Medina are located, fell
under m
amlUk
rule from about 1250 to 1517,
followed by the o
ttoman
dynasty
. During most
of this period the Hijaz was important to Arabia’s
foreign rulers, both as the birthplace of Islam and
as an important source of revenue from pilgrims
making the
haJJ
. It was locally ruled by the Shar-
ifs, a dynasty claiming descent from Muhammad.
Neither the foreign nor the local rulers, however,
tried to exert their authority over the Najd, which
was occupied by nomadic tribes.
It was in the Najd that Islamic reformer
m
Uhammad
i
bn
a
bd
al
-W
ahhab
(d. 1792) began
preaching, urging a return to a more austere form
of Islam. One of his early supporters was a local
ruler, Muhammad ibn Saud (d. 1765). Ibn Saud
offered lbn Abd al-Wahhab his protection, and
adopted his vision of Islam. Ibn Saud and his suc-
cessors, leading Wahhabi military forces in
Jihad
,
began to unite the tribes of the Najd, eventually
conquering almost all of the Arabian Peninsula.
This first Saudi state was short-lived, but in
1902 a
bd
al
-a
ziz
ibn
s
aUd
captured Riyadh; from
there he expanded the areas under his control. In
1932 these areas were unified as the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia, with Abd al-Aziz as king. Since his
death in 1953, the kingdom has been ruled by
his sons: Saud (r. 1953–64); Faysal (r. 1964–75);
Khalid (r. 1975–82): Fahd (r. 1982–2005), and
Abd Allah (r. 2005– ). Members of the royal
family hold most of the major ministries and
provincial governorships. The king, who is also
known as the Servant of the Two Holy Mosques
(in Mecca and Medina), also appoints members
of the Consultative Council (Majlis al-Shura),
the closest thing the country has to a legislature;
political parties are banned. The Basic Law of the
country is the
sharia
, as interpreted by the h
an
-
bali
l
egal
s
chool
, the tradition that inspired the
Wahhabi movement. The Quran is said to be the
constitution. Religious affairs are managed by the
Ulama
, especially by the Al al-Shaykh, descen-
dants of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab. They continue to
lend legitimacy to the government, and provide
it advice and guidance in affairs of state. Strict
religious law is enforced in the courts and by
the mutawwaa, Wahhabi public morality police.
Public criticism of the government or royal family
is generally not permitted. King Abd Allah, the
current ruler, is seen as favoring reforms that are
balanced with a respect for Saudi tradition, and
he has continued the cautious reform program he
began as crown prince.
In 1933 King Abd al-Aziz granted Standard Oil
of California (SOCAL) the concession to prospect
for oil in the kingdom. Its discovery in Dhahran
in 1938 significantly changed the young nation
from an underdeveloped desert region to one
of the world’s wealthiest countries. Much of the
kingdom’s development only began after World
War II and was carried out by the American
oil concession, renamed in 1944 as the Arabian
American Oil Company (Aramco, now known as
Saudi Aramco). In 1960 Saudi Arabia was one of
the founding members of OPEC (o
rganization
oF
p
etroleUm
e
Xporting
c
oUntries
), which coordi-
nates the petroleum policies of member nations.
In 1973 it participated in an oil embargo against
the United States and the Netherlands because of
their support for Israel in the 1973 Arab-Israel war.
Oil revenues increased significantly as a result.
Petroleum and petroleum products today make up
90 percent of Saudi Arabia’s exports; the nation is
the world’s largest oil exporter. Despite its vast oil
wealth, Saudi Arabia faces economic challenges.
The economy is heavily dependent on oil. To diver-
sify the economy, the government is encouraging
the development of industries in the private sector.
It is hoped that this will also reduce the country’s
high unemployment rate. In 2005 Saudi Arabia
joined the World Trade Organization (WTO); it is
hoped that membership will help attract foreign
investment to Saudi Arabia. Its oil wealth has also
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