Encyclopedia of Islam

Further reading: Renata Holod and Hasan-Uddin Khan, 

The Mosque and the Modern World (London: Thames 

and Hudson, 1997); Nuha N. N. Khoury, “The Mihrab 

Image: Commemorative Themes in Early Islamic Archi-

tecture.”  Muqarnas 9 (1992): 11–28; Nuha N. N. 

Khoury, “The Mihrab: From Text to Form.” Interna-

tional Journal of Middle East Studies 30 (1997): 1–27.

Mihrab with elaborate inlaid marble designs and 

inscriptions in the Sultan al-Nasir Hasan Mosque-

Madrasa complex (14th century), Cairo, Egypt.

(Juan E. Campo)

mihrab

  

473  J

---

minaret

 

(Arabic: 

manara “beacon,” also 

midhana “place for making the call to 

prayer”)

Many of the world’s major civilizations have 

developed distinct forms or “languages” of reli-

gious 

architectUre

 that have become emblematic 

for those civilizations and their dominant reli-

gious traditions. Examples include the pyramids 

of e

gypt

 and Mexico, the great Hindu temple tow-

ers of i

ndia

, Buddhist stupas (large hemispherical 

structures containing sacred relics of the Buddha), 

as well as the towers and spires found on many 

Christian churches and basilicas. For Islam, per-

haps the most distinctive architectural form is 

the minaret, a tower where the 

adhan

, or call to 

prayer

, is performed. It stands within the sacred 

space of a 

mosqUe

. The minaret’s antecedent is 

thought to have been the rooftop of m

Uhammad

’s 

house-mosque in m

edina

, where b

ilal

, a former 

slave and one of the first Muslims, made the daily 

adhan. Later, in the wake of the early Arab con-

quests, churches seized from Christian opponents 

in  s

yria

 were converted into mosques and their 

towers were used for making the call to prayer.

The minaret as a specialized architectural 

form, however, did not develop until after the 

ninth century, especially in Sunni-majority regions 

of the Middle East. It became a very prominent 

religious signature on the Islamicate urban land-

scape. In addition to providing a place for making 

the  adhan, the minaret informed people where 

the mosque was located and often symbolized the 

wealth and power of the individual or group who 

built and maintained it. In addition to mosques, it 

was also included in the architecture of medieval 

madrasas, Sufi hospices, and shrines. Minarets can 

be square or cylindrical in shape, or a combina-

tion of both. Most have an interior spiral staircase 

that leads to one or more balconies at the top, 

where the 

mUezzin

 stands to do the adhan. Many 

are made of stone, but wood, adobe, and concrete 

have also been used. They are often embellished 

with elaborate 

arabesqUe

 designs, or bear Arabic 

inscriptions, but some have little decoration if 

any. Typically a mosque will have only one mina-

ret, but imperial mosques often have two or more, 

indicating that their symbolic importance exceeds 

the practical purpose for performing the call to 

prayer. Minarets have been added to preexist-

ing buildings, as was the case for the Aya Sofia 

Mosque in i

stanbUl

, which had been the chief 

basilica for the Byzantine Empire until the city 

was taken by the Ottomans in 1453. The reverse 

happened in a

ndalUsia

 (Islamicate Spain), where 

the towering minaret La Giralda of Seville’s Friday 

mosque was transformed into a bell tower after 

the city was captured by Christian armies in the 

14th century. The same occurred at the Great 

Mosque of c

ordoba

. Today, mosques in many 

Muslim countries are equipped with electronic 

sound systems for broadcasting the adhan, but the 

minaret has not been eliminated and continues to 

possess symbolic importance.

Different minaret styles have evolved in dif-

ferent parts of Islamdom, just as different kinds 

of church towers developed in lands with large 

Christian populations. These include the multi-

storied sculptured Mamluk minarets of 13th- to 

16th-century c

airo

, which are topped by one or 

more bulblike decorations. North African and 

Andalusian minarets are square towers. Otto-

Mamluk (left) and Ottoman (center) minarets of 

Cairo, Egypt

(Juan E. Campo)

K  474  

minaret

---

man Turkish minarets have a simple design, like 

great pencils or rockets pointing heavenward. 

New minaret styles have been devised by modern 

architects, as can be seen at the magnificent Faysal 

Mosque in Islamabad, p

akistan

, and the Islamic 

Cultural Center in New York City, U

nited

 s

tates

.

Minarets were not used everywhere, however. 

Traditional mosques in e

ast

  a

Frica

, Kashmir, 

South India, and m

alaysia

 did not have them. In 

the modern period minarets have become nearly 

universal. However, it is still possible to find 

mosques that lack them. This may be due to a 

variety of factors, including local tradition, build-

ing codes, lack of resources, or conscious decision 

by mosque governing boards to devote funds for 

other purposes.

Minarets have also gained a symbolic value 

beyond the limits of Islamic cultures and societ-

ies. They have been adapted for use in synagogue 

architecture, especially in Sephardic Jewish com-

munities. They also hold a prominent place in 

romanticized Euro-American representations of 

the Middle East, particularly in popular art, car-

toons, and the cinema. Minarets have even been 

used in the architecture of amusement parks, 

theaters, and shopping centers in e

Urope

 and the 

Americas.

See also  c

hristianity

 

and

  i

slam

; 

cities

;  s

ep

-

hardic

 J

eWs

.