Encyclopedia of Islam

Further reading: Kenneth Cragg, Jesus and the Muslim: 

An Exploration (London and Boston, G. Allen & Unwin, 

1985); Tarif Khalidi, The Muslim Jesus: Sayings and 

Stories in Islamic Literature (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard 

University Press, 2001); Javad Nurbakhsh, Jesus in the 

Eyes of the Sufis (London: Khaniqahi-Nimatullahi Pub-

lications, 1983); Edward Geoffrey Parrinder, Jesus in 

the Quran (Oxford: Oneworld, 1995); Neal Robinson, 

Christ in Islam and Christianity: The Representation of 

Jesus in the Quran and the Classical Muslim Commentar-

ies (London: Macmillan, 1991); Ahmad ibn Muham-

mad al-Thalabi, Arais al-majalis fi qisas al-anbiya, or 

“Lives of the Prophets.” Translated by William M. Brin-

ner (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 2002), 622–680.

jihad

Literally, the Arabic word jihad means to strive 

or struggle (in the path of God); it often refers to 

religiously sanctioned warfare. The q

Uran

 advo-

cates jihad to extend God’s rule (Q 2:192, 8:39), 

promising reward in the 

aFterliFe

 for those who 

are killed in battle (Q 3:157–158, 169–172) and 

punishment for those who do not participate (Q