Speed
reference
Inverter
Synch.
motor
Encoder
V
dc
Figure 10.8
Self-synchronous motor–inverter system. In large sizes this arrangement is
sometimes referred to as a ‘synchdrive’; in smaller sizes it would be known as a brushless
d.c. motor drive
356
Electric Motors and Drives
e.m.f. is insu
Y
cient, so the motor is started under open-loop current-fed
operation, in the manner of a stepping motor.
As inverter costs have fallen, lower power drives using permanent
magnet motors have become attractive, especially where very high
speeds are required and the conventional brushed d.c. motor is unsuit-
able because of commutator limitations.
BRUSHLESS D.C. MOTORS
Much of the impetus for the development of brushless d.c. motors came
from the computer peripheral and aerospace industries, where high per-
formance coupled with reliability and low maintenance are essential.
Very large numbers of brushless d.c. motors are now used, particularly
in sizes up to a few hundred watts. The small versions (less than 100 W)
are increasingly made with all the control and power electronic circuits
integrated at one end of the motor, so that they can be directly retro
W
tted
as a replacement for a conventional d.c. motor. Because all the heat-
dissipating circuits are on the stator, cooling is much better than in a
conventional motor, so higher speci
W
c outputs can be achieved. The rotor
inertia can also be less than that of a conventional armature, which means
that the torque–inertia ratio is better, giving a higher acceleration. Higher
speeds are practicable because there is no mechanical commutator.
In principle, there is no di
V
erence between a brushless d.c. motor and
the self-synchronous permanent magnet motor discussed earlier in this
chapter. The reader may therefore be puzzled as to why some motors are
described as brushless d.c. while others are not. In fact, there is no logical
reason at all, nor indeed is there any universal de
W
nition or agreed
terminology.
Broadly speaking, however, the accepted practice is to restrict the term
‘brushless d.c. motor’ to a particular type of self-synchronous permanent
magnet motor in which the rotor magnets and stator windings are ar-
ranged to produce an air-gap
X
ux density wave which has a trapezoidal
shape. Such motors are fed from inverters that produce rectangular
current waveforms, the switch-on being initiated by digital signals from
a relatively simple rotor position sensor. This combination permits the
motor to develop a more or less smooth torque, regardless of speed, but
does not require an elaborate position sensor. (In contrast, many self-
synchronous machines have sinusoidal air-gap
W
elds, and therefore re-
quire more sophisticated position sensing and current pro
W
ling if they are
to develop continuous smooth torque.)
The brushless d.c. motor is essentially an inside out electronically
commutated d.c. motor, and can therefore be controlled in the same
Synchronous, Brushless D.C. and Switched Reluctance Drives
357
way as a conventional d.c. motor (see Chapter 4). Many brushless motors
are used in demanding servo-type applications, where they need to be
integrated with digitally controlled systems. For this sort of application,
complete digital control systems, which provide for torque, speed and
position control are available.
SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR DRIVES
The switched reluctance drive was developed in the 1980s to o
V
er advan-
tages in terms of e
Y
ciency, power per unit weight and volume, robustness
and operational
X
exibility. The motor and its associated power-electronic
drive must be designed as an integrated package, and optimised for
a particular speci
W
cation, e.g. for maximum overall e
Y
ciency with a
Plate 10.1
Switched reluctance motors. The motors with
W
nned casings are TEFV for use
in general-purpose industrial controlled speed drives, the largest being rated at 75 kW
(100 h.p.) at 1500 rev/min. The force-ventilated motor (centre rear) is for high-
performance (‘d.c. equivalent’) applications. Most of the other motors are designed for
speci
W
c OEM applications, including domestic white goods (left front) automotive (centre
front), food processor and vacuum cleaner (right front). Very high speeds can be used
because the rotor is very robust and there are no brushes, and thus very high speci
W
c outputs
are obtained; some of the small motors run at up to 30 000 rev/min. (Photograph by
courtesy of Switched Reluctance Drives Ltd)
358
Electric Motors and Drives
speci
W
c load, or maximum speed range, or peak short-term torque. Des-
pite being relatively new, the technology has been applied to a wide range
of applications including general-purpose industrial drives, compressors,
domestic appliances and o
Y
ce and business equipment.
Principle of operation
The switched reluctance motor di
V
ers from the conventional reluctance
motor in that both the rotor and the stator have salient poles. This
doubly salient arrangement (as shown in Figure 10.9) proves to be very
e
V
ective as far as electromagnetic energy conversion is concerned.
The stator carries coils on each pole, while the rotor, which is made
from laminations in the usual way, has no windings or magnets and is
therefore cheap to manufacture and extremely robust. The particular
example shown in Figure 10.9 has 12 stator poles and 8 rotor poles, and
represents a widely used arrangement, but other pole combinations are
used to suit di
V
erent applications. In Figure 10.9, the 12 coils are
grouped to form three phases, which are independently energised from
a 3-phase converter.
The motor rotates by exciting the phases sequentially in the sequence
A, B, C for anticlockwise rotation or A, C, B for clockwise rotation, the
‘nearest’ pair of rotor poles being pulled into alignment with the appro-
priate stator poles by reluctance torque action. In Figure 10.9 the four
coils forming phase A are shown by thick line, the polarities of the coil
MMFs being indicated by the letters N and S on the back of the core.
Each time a new phase is excited the equilibrium position of the rotor
advances by 15
8
, so after one complete cycle (i.e. each of the three
phases has been excited once) the angle turned through is 45
8
. The
machine therefore rotates once for eight fundamental cycles of supply
to the stator windings, so in terms of the relationship between the
N
S
S
N
Figure 10.9
Typical switched reluctance (SR) motor. Each of the 12-stator poles carries
a concentrated winding, while the 8-pole rotor has no windings or magnets
Synchronous, Brushless D.C. and Switched Reluctance Drives
359
fundamental supply frequency and the speed of rotation, the machine in
Figure 10.9 behaves as a 16-pole conventional machine.
Readers familiar with stepping motors (see Chapter 9) will correctly
identify the SR motor as a variable reluctance stepping motor. There are
of course important design di
V
erences which re
X
ect the di
V
erent object-
ives (continuous rotation for the SR, stepwise progression for the step-
per), but otherwise the mechanisms of torque production are identical.
However, while the stepper is designed
W
rst and foremost for open-loop
operation, the SR motor is designed for self-synchronous operation, the
phases being switched by signals derived from a shaft-mounted rotor
position detector (RPT). In terms of performance, at all speeds below
the base speed continuous operation at full torque is possible. Above the
base speed, the
X
ux can no longer be maintained at full amplitude and
the available torque reduces with speed. The operating characteristics
are thus very similar to those of the other most important controlled-
speed drives, but with the added advantage that overall e
Y
ciencies are
generally a per cent or two higher.
Given that the mechanism of torque production in the switched reluc-
tance motor appears to be very di
V
erent from that in d.c. machines,
induction motors and synchronous machines (all of which exploit the
‘
BIl
’ force on a conductor in a magnetic
W
eld) it might have been expected
that one or other type would o
V
er such clear advantages that the other
would fade away. In fact, despite claims and counter claims, there appears
to be little to choose between them overall, and one wonders whether the
mechanisms of operation are really so fundamentally di
V
erent as our
ingrained ways of looking at things lead us to believe. Perhaps a visitor
from another planet would note the similarity in terms of volume, quan-
tities and disposition of iron and copper, and overall performance, and
bring some fresh enlightenment to bear so that we emerge recognising
some underlying truth that hitherto has escaped us.
Torque prediction and control
If the iron in the magnetic circuit is treated as ideal, analytical expres-
sions can be derived to express the torque of a reluctance motor in
terms of the rotor position and the current in the windings. In practice,
however, this analysis is of little real use, not only because switched
reluctance motors are designed to operate with high levels of magnetic
saturation in parts of the magnetic circuit, but also because, except at
low speeds, it is not practicable to achieve speci
W
ed current pro
W
les.
The fact that high levels of saturation are involved makes the problem
of predicting torque at the design stage challenging, but despite the highly
360
Electric Motors and Drives
non-linear relationships it is possible to compute the
X
ux, current and
torque as functions of rotor position, so that optimum control strategies
can be devised to meet particular performance speci
W
cations. Unfortu-
nately this complexity means that there is no simple equivalent circuit
available to illuminate behaviour.
As we saw when we discussed the stepping motor, to maximise the
average torque it would (in principle) be desirable to establish the full
current in each phase instantaneously, and to remove it instantaneously
at the end of each positive torque period. But, as illustrated in Figure
9.14, this is not possible even with a small stepping motor, and certainly
out of the question for switched reluctance motors (which have much
higher inductance) except at low speeds where current chopping (see
Figure 9.14) is employed. For most of the speed range, the best that can
be done is to apply the full voltage available from the converter at the
start of the ‘on’ period, and (using a circuit such as that shown in Figure
9.15) apply full negative voltage at the end of the pulse by opening both
of the switches.
Operation using full positive voltage at the beginning and full negative
voltage at the end of the ‘on’ period is referred to as ‘single-pulse’ opera-
tion. For all but small motors (of less than say 1 kW) the phase resistance
is negligible and consequently the magnitude of the phase
X
ux-linkage is
determined by the applied voltage and frequency, as we have seen many
times previously with other types of motor.
The relationship between the
X
ux-linkage (
c
) and the voltage is em-
bodied in Faraday’s law, i.e.
n
¼
d
c
=
d
t
, so with the rectangular voltage
waveform of single-pulse operation the phase
X
ux linkage waveforms have
a very simple triangular shape, as in Figure 10.10 which shows the wave-
forms for phase A of a 3-phase motor. (The waveforms for phases B and C
are identical, but are not shown: they are displaced by one third and two
thirds of a cycle, as indicated by the arrows.) The upper half of the diagram
represents the situation at speed N, while the lower half corresponds to a
speed of 2N. As can be seen, at the higher speed (high frequency) the ‘on’
period halves, so the amplitude of the
X
ux halves, leading to a reduction in
available torque. The same limitation was seen in the case of the inverter-
fed induction motor drive, the only di
V
erence being that the waveforms in
that case were sinusoidal rather than triangular.
It is important to note that these
X
ux waveforms do not depend on the
rotor position, but the corresponding current waveforms do because the
MMF needed for a given
X
ux depends on the e
V
ective reluctance of
the magnetic circuit, and this of course varies with the position of the rotor.
To get the most motoring torque for any given phase
X
ux waveform,
it is obvious that the rise and fall of the
X
ux must be timed to coincide
Synchronous, Brushless D.C. and Switched Reluctance Drives
361
with the rotor position: ideally, the
X
ux should only be present when it
produces positive torque, and be zero whenever it would produce nega-
tive torque, but given the delay in build-up of the
X
ux it may be better to
switch on early so that the
X
ux reaches a decent level at the point when it
can produce the most torque, even if this does lead to some negative
torque at the start and
W
nish of the cycle.
The job of the torque control system is to switch each phase on and
o
V
at the optimum rotor position in relation to the torque being
demanded at the time, and this is done by keeping track of the rotor
position using a RPT. Just what angles constitute the optimum depends
on what is to be optimised (e.g. average torque, overall e
Y
ciency), and
this in turn is decided by reference to the data stored digitally in the
controller ‘memory map’ that relates current,
X
ux, rotor position and
torque for the particular machine. Torque control is thus considerably
less straightforward than in d.c. drives, where torque is directly
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
C
C
C
Speed =
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