Economic Modelling 73 (2018) 152–162
Contents lists available at
ScienceDirect
Economic Modelling
journal homepage:
www.journals.elsevier.com/economic-modelling
Upward wage rigidity and Japan’s dispatched worker system
W.D. Chen
*
Department of Economics, Tunghai University, Taichung City 40767, Taiwan
A R T I C L E
I N F O
JEL:
C23
C52
Keywords:
Dispatched worker
Upward wage rigidity
Mean reversion
Persistent
Dynamic equilibrium
A B S T R A C T
This article focuses on the salary rigidity problem and provides an interpretation to explain why wages easily
stick at low prices. Associated with weak correlations between wages and productivity, we reveal the relationship
between Japan’s dispatched worker system and upward wage rigidity. Unlike the traditional approach focusing
on downward wage rigidity, we discover that firms naturally press wages down to gain benefit, in which a high
cost of switching jobs for workers fosters businesses to suppress salaries and increase upward wage rigidity. The
findings show that upward wage rigidity widely exists in Japan labor markets and significantly increased during
the 2008 financial crisis. At that time, the number of temporary workers skyrocketed upward. As dispatched
workers usually get lower salaries than regular job workers, this pulls down the payment and increases the
degree of upward wage rigidity. In the result analysis, we discover that the revision in the Dispatch Worker Law
of 2009 significantly raised temporary workers’ wages and improved market efficiency.
1. Introduction and background
Unlike the traditional literature whereby economists usually focus
on downward wage rigidity, this article emphasizes upward wage rigid-
ity. Recent studies reveal that the relationship between wages and pro-
ductivity is rather unstable, and even in some places their correlations
are negative. This article provides an insightful interpretation to explain
this phenomenon. Through a dynamic equilibrium model, we display
the interaction between firm and workers and reveal that Japan’s labor
markets have broad upward wage rigidity. This study concentrates on
Japan’s dispatched worker system and discovers that it has a signifi-
cant effect on wage adjustment. From the historical data, we realize
that Japan has a low unemployment rate, with it averaging 2.73% from
1953 to 2016. To aid such a flat unemployment rate, one of the essential
support factors comes from the use of a significant portion of temporary
workers. According to a survey by the Ministry of Health, Labor, and
Welfare, about 80.5% of companies that employ over 1000 people use
dispatched workers in 2012. Furthermore, in 2014 non-regular employ-
ees hit 37.4% of the total labor force. This shows that the structure of
Japan’s labor market has gradually changed, and that the Japan govern-
ment is aware of this problem. Considering that more and more workers
are involved in the dispatched worker system, it is important to figure
out the influence of a higher rate of temporary workers in this country’s
labor market. As the dispatched agencies usually pay a relatively low
salary, if firms hire a lot of temporary workers, then that could affect
* P.O. Box 95, No. 1727, Sec. 4, Taiwan Blvd., Taichung City 40704, Taiwan.
E-mail address:
wdchen@thu.edu.tw
.
the labor markets’ price mechanism.
Japan’s government has regulated the temporary staffing indus-
try through the Worker Dispatch Law since 1985. The initial aim of
this law was to monitor the subcontractors, as dispatching person-
nel had become common in the automobile and electronic industries;
thus, the government limited temporary staffing to 13 professional jobs.
For the revision in 1999, the Japan government expanded the tempo-
rary staffing industry to most labor markets, except for some restricted
manufacturing sectors. A change in 2004 eventually removed most of
the remaining restrictions on temporary staffing in the manufacturing
industry. With an enormous expansion of temporary labor in the Japan
labor market, the number of regular employees declined by about 1.9
million, while the number of non-regular workers increased by approx-
imately 4.5 million between 2000 and 2007. During the 2008 financial
crisis, short-term contract and temporary staffing workers grew to more
than 30% of the Japan labor force.
This problem is turning severe, because temporary workers get few
of the rights and benefits compared to full-time regular employees. For
example, many non-regular workers do not qualify for unemployment
benefits, because they have not held their jobs for a year or longer. In
many cases, short-term contract workers are laid off before the terms
of their contracts end due to a lack of penalties in the labor laws. To
improve the benefits for non-regular workers, the Democratic, Social
Democratic, and People’s New parties submitted a proposal to revise the
Worker Dispatch Law on June 26, 2009; and then on March 3, 2010,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2018.03.010
Received 18 December 2017; Received in revised form 30 January 2018; Accepted 13 March 2018
Available online 26 March 2018
0264-9993/© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
W.D. Chen
Economic Modelling 73 (2018) 152–162
the Japan government approved the bill for partial amendment. The
main points of the revisions are as follows. (1) Prohibit problematic
registration-type dispatches in principle, except for highly specialized
jobs like language interpretation. (2) Ban dispatches to manufactur-
ing industries, except for regular-type long-term employment. (3) Ban
day-work dispatches and dispatches shorter than two months in princi-
ple. Lastly, (4) in the case of an illegal dispatch, the user company or
other user organization will be obliged to offer an employment contract
to the dispatched worker. This revision law provided an improvement
for dispatched workers with job security guarantees. We are thus curi-
ous whether the policy has a similar effect on different industries. For
instance, the policy may be useful in the finance and insurance (FI)
industry, but it might not work well in the information and commu-
nication technology (IC) industry, because the FI industry usually has
regular and routine work, while the IC industry needs innovations with
a flexible working environment.
As dispatched workers could lead to a low and sticky wage prob-
lem, we have to figure out how profound it is and what is the effect of
the policy. Through an estimation of the dynamic equilibrium model,
we can detect whether a market exhibits upward or downward rigid-
ity. Considering the low coefficients between productivity and wages in
the Japan labor markets, we do see an apparent upward rigidity phe-
nomenon. We attempt to evaluate the effect of the revision of the Dis-
patch Worker Law in the labor market. This study divides the data into
three different periods and then measures their structure changes and
performance. The first period is from January 2000 to July 2007, which
is Japan’s so-called Lost Decade and between the dot-com collapse and
the global financial crisis. The second time is between August 2007
and May 2009, including the global financial crisis. Since the economy
crashed down in 2008 and a lot of workers lost their jobs, the pro-
portion of non-regular employees primarily increased. The dispatched
workers hired hit a peak in May 2008; see
Fig. 1
a. During the financial
crisis, we find that not only did productivity decrease, but wages for the
21 industries also showed diversification, with some of them diving and
some of them sticky; see
Fig. 1
b. This demonstrates their heterogene-
ity. The third period is from June 2009 to October 2015, or the time
after the revision of the Dispatch Worker Law. After the amendment,
the salaries of dispatched workers significantly improved, because the
government applied the rules with ‘the same pay for the same work’
and the ‘least hiring length.’
This study looks to explore the wage trap phenomenon in the Japan
market and shows its influence on wage dispersion. During the 2008
financial crisis, many workers lost their jobs, which caused wages to
vaporize and diversify, as seen in
Fig. 1
b. Associated with the 21 indus-
tries in this country’s labor markets, we explain why the coefficients of
productivity on wages are so low, with even some of them negative.
Considering heterogeneity in wage distribution, we apply a dynamic
equilibrium model to express the wage change, in which we coordinate
with a multiple-factor panel data model and then evaluate the degree
of market failure in each industry. With mean-reversion and persistent
components, we examine the market efficiency during different time
periods.
We arrange the remainder of this paper as follows. Section
2
explores the recent studies about dispatched workers in the Japan
labor market, which reveal the differences between part- and full-time
workers in the workplace. We are concerned for why firms increas-
ingly employ part-time workers in jobs that were offered for full-time
workers before. We refer to several essential studies associated with
the matching theory to display the background behind the relationship
between wage and productivity. Section
3
develops a dynamic equi-
librium model to discuss the surplus flow between firm owners and
labors. We discover that it is natural to stick wages at low prices and
make the market inefficient. Section
4
applies our model to the labor
markets of 21 industries in Japan, in which the portions associated with
non-stationary and stationary factors are measured to show the degrees
of instability and market failure. In the estimation, we apply the boot-
strap method to recognize the stationarity and non-stationarity of each
factor. Section
5
gives concluding remarks, summarizing this paper’s
contributions.
2. Literature review
With an increasing amount of non-regular workers, such a change
intrigues our interest in the influence of the dispatched worker system
in the Japan labor market, which has some well-known regulations,
especially the revision of Dispatch Worker Law in 2009. Some studies
have provided reasons why the temporary staffing industry has grown
so prosperously.
Gaston and Kishi (2007)
and
Tanaka (2013)
explored
why Japan has seen such a rapid growth of non-regular workers. To
cost-down, many firms increasingly hire part-time workers in tradi-
tional jobs initially offered for full-time workers. They demonstrated
that not only has the service sector tended to employ temporary work-
ers, but this also has widely spread to the manufacturing industry, espe-
cially on outsourcing.
Kahn (2012)
,
Jahn and Pozzoli (2013)
, and
Aoy-
agi and Ganelli (2015)
investigated the difference between temporary
and regular workers from various aspects, including contract duration,
wage gaps, and training cost. They discussed the advantages and dis-
advantages when recruiting for temporary employment. These articles
Fig. 1. In order to reduce the production cost, (1a) demon-
strates that firms hired a lot of dispatched workers during
the 2008 financial crisis, showing a peak in May 2008. Fig.
(1b) shows the wage changes are diversified and sticky in
the 21 industries.
153
W.D. Chen
Economic Modelling 73 (2018) 152–162
provide reasons why the dispatched worker system has grown so much.
Similar to Japan, some other countries have employed high ratios
of temporary workers, and these high ratios of temporary workers have
a long history, such as in Spain. Their features are very different from
Japan; see
Bentolila (1992)
,
Bentolila (1997)
, and
Boeri and Jimeno
(2016)
. In Japan, we know that the correlations between productivity
and wages are relatively low, and even some markets they are negative.
A low or negative correlation between productivity and wages implies
there could exist upward rigidity. This phenomenon does not appears in
all the countries with a high ratio of temporary workers. For instance,
though Spain has a high proportion of temporary workers, its correla-
tion between productivity and wages is not low, and its unemployment
rates are high, which is not seen in the Japan labor market.
In reality both upward and downward rigidities coexist in an econ-
omy with different markets. Some markets could stick at higher salaries
and some markets could be at low wages, but both will reduce real
output. That will increase the number of unemployed. We illustrate the
Spanish market as an example. During 2000–2009, Spain accounted
for 30% of all new homes built in the European Union (EU), but its
economy merely occupied around 10% of the EU’s total GDP. As Spain
has many beautiful resorts, there was high foreign demand for holiday
and retirement homes, as about 60 million tourists visit Spain annu-
ally. Nevertheless, in 2008, the property bubble burst, and jobs were
destroyed quickly. As construction is a labor-intensive sector, more than
1.5 million jobs were lost. When the economy sank, aggregate demand
decreased, and output fell, as salaries showed the property of down-
ward rigidity, see
Fig. 2
b. This caused shows salaries stick above the
equilibrium and thus created a lot of unemployment, especially for the
youth and unskilled labor markets; see
Dolado et al. (2000)
. Further-
more, many unemployed could spill over to other markets and take
temporary jobs. As their salaries are relatively low, this will strengthen
the markets to stick wages at a low level, making their real output be
smaller than the equilibrium quantity (potential output). These two sit-
uations are mixed and could derive a vicious cycle. Thus, there could
be a high unemployment rate with a lot of temporary workers; see
Ben-
tolila (1992)
and
Bentolila (1997)
. This article provides an approach
to estimate the coefficients of productivity on wages across different
industries, in which we can discern whether they exhibit upward or
downward wage rigidity.
As downward rigidity has been discussed quite a bit in the liter-
ature, this article focuses on upward rigidity. Regarding the increas-
ing ratio of non-regular workers, we are interested in the role of the
dispatched worker system in the labor market and attempt to exam-
ine the efficiency of markets when the economy hit the 2008 financial
crisis through the regulations of the Dispatch Worker Law. In a con-
ventional approach and associated with a labor model, the literature
usually considers job creation and destruction; see
Pissarides (1986)
,
Pissarides (1994)
,
Mortensen and Pissarides (1994)
,
Mortensen and Pis-
sarides (1998)
,
Mortensen and Pissarides (1999)
, and
Pissarides (2000)
.
They shed light on the matching theory, in which they establish a
non-cooperative bargain behavior with a searching equilibrium model.
Their outstanding works help us to realize the job creation and the
separation process and to exhibit how tightness in the labor market
influences the wage. In addition, there are many studies that apply the
dynamic framework to investigate the persistent property in the labor
market; for examples,
Jovanovic (1979
,
1984)
,
Cahuc and Malherbet
(2004)
,
Faccini and Ortigueira (2010)
,
Zanetti (2011)
, and
Kurozumi
and Zandweghe (2012)
. These studies have provided useful methods to
show the effects of a nominal rigid wage. To look at the influence of
bargaining power and sticky price, they presented models to explain
stability and volatility in a rational expectation equilibrium.
When we survey data of a labor market in practice, we find that
wage and productivity have an unstable relationship.
Mishel and Gee
(2012)
showed that the productivity gains achieved in the U.S. econ-
omy between 1973 and 2011 have not had a positive effect on work-
ers’ wages. They noted the decline of labor compensation as a share of
GDP in the United States since 2000, which has brought about income
inequality and the problem of salaries. This phenomenon has not only
appeared in the U.S., but has also spread all over the world.
Elgin and
Kuzubas (2013)
found a widening gap between wage and productivity
in the Turkish manufacturing industry from 1950 to 2009. Logically,
a low wage should result in excess demand and cause wages to rise.
In practice, however, we see rigidity does exist in wages. With excess
demand and rigidity, this will cause a broad range of wages and moti-
vates workers to conduct on-the-job searching.
Berg and Ridder (1998)
proposed an equilibrium search model, in which the wage offer distri-
bution is endogenous.
Burdett and Mortensen (1998)
explored on-the-
job searching as a mechanism for simultaneously generating job-to-job
flows for workers and wage dispersion. That study revealed the inter-
action between competition and search frictions. Considering the ben-
efit changes of labor gains,
Karabarbounis and Neiman (2014)
show
that the stability in the labor share of income is a key foundation in
macroeconomic models and further demonstrate that the global labor
share has significantly declined since the early 1980s.
Booth (2014)
discusses trade unions with an imperfectly competitive models and
presents the broad existence of such an environment.
Dobbelaere et al.
(2015)
reveal that industry differences and market imperfections cause
income inequality.
Chang and Hung (2016)
show how high unemploy-
ment and high growth can coexist. They point out that unionization
gives rise to an ambiguous effect on income inequality.
Chu, Cozzi, and
Furukawa (2016)
suggest that an increase in the bargaining power of a
wage-oriented union leads to a decrease in employment in the domestic
economy, which reduces the rates of innovation and economic growth.
Afonso (2016)
points out that wage inequality comes from unskilled and
Fig. 2. Fig. 2a shows the wage is sticky at a lower price w
s
.
Because the labor supply is usually inelastic, the firms get
significantly more massive surplus than at the equilibrium
if the wage is at a low level of w
s
. Thus, companies have
no incentive to raise salaries if they can keep employees
from leaving. The opportunity cost for employees to switch
jobs is high. If workers want to change jobs, then they have
to search for companies that can provide a higher pay to
cover the switching job cost. As the price mechanism is
already ruined, the searching cost is high. Fig. 2b demon-
strates the wage is sticky at a higher price w
s
. If firms want
to cut salaries, then this will provoke workers’ resistance.
That causes downward wage rigidity.
154
W.D. Chen
Economic Modelling 73 (2018) 152–162
skilled labor.
Dobbelaere and Mairesse (2013)
demonstrate a dynamic
model with search friction is associated with gradual collective wage
bargaining, demonstrating that it coincides with all-or-nothing bargain-
ing when bargaining takes place in fictitious time before production.
Krusell and Rudanko (2016)
show matching friction in a labor market
and reveal that a monopoly union controls the wage setting.
Hoffmann
and Shi (2016)
note as a result of the tradeoff between recruiting and
retaining a worker that equilibrium wage rates will be distributed along
an interval.
Regarding the spreads of rigidity and instability, this article takes
notice of the welfare distribution. We discuss why firms have monop-
sony power to grab a better portion of surplus. The next section explains
the reasons why firms can set a price below the equilibrium and dis-
cusses the job-switching cost that causes upward wage rigidity. We
also reveal that wages deviating from the competitive level will lead
to instability. That also reflects in the relationship between salaries and
productivity, which can explain the existence of a negative correlation.
Furthermore, as dispatched worker agencies usually pay workers lower
salaries than regular jobs and solve the problem of labor shortage for
firms, this will foster wages to stick at a low level. In the estimation,
we shall apply a modified ordinary least squares (MOLS) to capture the
long-run relationship and then apply a multiple factor model to show
the rigidity in labor markets. We demonstrate persistent and mean-
reverting components in the gap between wages and the equilibrium
and use the persistence and mean-reversion to present the market fail-
ure and efficiency, respectively.
3. Rigid wage dynamic equilibrium model
This section develops a model to describe how economic surplus
flows between firms and workers. In conventional studies, labor’s bar-
gaining power is a crucial factor to describe how much employees and
employers share. If their bargaining power is significant, then the work-
ers can share a substantial portion of the benefits; otherwise, workers
have a small share of the surplus. Under this hypothesis, the wages
should have a positive relationship with productivity. In reality, we dis-
cover that the correlations between wages and productivity are often
close to zero, and sometimes they are even negative. This section
attempts to explain this unstable relationship. We display that firms
naturally press salaries down to share a more substantial surplus, and
upward rigidity usually takes place.
We begin our discussion from the model settled by
Pissarides (1994)
.
Let E, U, J, and V represent the surplus of the employed, unemployed,
firm, and vacancy, respectively. We then can measure the surplus for
each one as follows:
rE
=
w
−
𝛿(
E
−
U
)
,
rJ
=
y
−
w
+
𝛿(
V
−
J
)
,
rU
=
b
+
p
(
𝜃)(
E
−
U
)
,
and
rV
=
q
(
𝜃)(
J
−
V
) −
𝜅,
(1)
where r, y, w, b,
𝛿
,
𝜃
,
𝜅
, p
(
𝜃)
, and q
(
𝜃)
represent the discount rate, pro-
ductivity, wage, subsidy on unemployment, separation rate, tightness
(vacancies/unemployed), flowing cost, the probability for a worker to
get a job, and the probability of a vacancy to be filled, respectively. The
conventional assumption is that if firms can freely enter the market to
create vacancies, then the expected present value of vacancy is zero;
that is, V
=
0.
We now can get the returns for the incremental surplus of job
and worker through productivity and wage. We have the following
relationship:
rJ
=
y
−
w
−
𝛿
J
,
rW
=
w
−
b
−
𝛿
W
−
p
(
𝜃)
W
,
(2)
where W
=
E
−
U. In a steady state, we obtain J
= (
y
−
w
)∕(
r
+
𝛿)
and W
= (
w
−
b
)∕(
r
+
𝛿 +
p
(
𝜃))
. Thus, if we can get the relationship
between W and J, then we have the relationship between w and y.
Through conventional approaches we can maximize Nash bargaining
utility U
(
W
,
J
) =
W
𝛽
J
1
−
𝛽
to obtain the tradeoff between the surplus
of firm and workers, where W and J represent the surplus for workers
and firms, and
𝛽
denotes the bargaining power. According to
Pissarides
(1994)
, we can apply the first-order optimal solution U
W
=
U
J
with the
matching theory to obtain the wage equation: w
= (
1
−
𝛽)
b
+
𝛽
y
+
𝛽𝜅𝜃,
where w, y, b,
𝜃
, and
𝜅
represent the wage, productivity, subsidy on
unemployment, tightness (vacancies/unemployed), flow cost, and error
term, respectively.
Different from the conventional approach, we regard that the sur-
plus flowing between firms and workers will encounter friction associ-
ated with wage rigidity. Upward wage rigidity makes it challenging for
the wage to raise, which means that the benefit flowing from compa-
nies to workers is difficult. In the same way, downward wage rigidity
indicates that it is difficult for salaries to fall, and it is challenging for
the surplus to flow from workers to firms. Thus, we need to consider a
stochastic dynamic model and assume a value function as:
V
(
J
,
W
) =
max
J
,
W
𝔼
t
∫
∞
t
e
−
rs
U
(
J
,
W
)
ds
,
(3)
where r is the discount rate, t is time, U
(
J
,
W
)
is a relative risk utility
function:
U
(
J
,
W
) =
J
c
c
+
W
c
c
,
and c
=
1, c
<
1, and c
>
1 imply the characteristics of risk neutral,
aversion, and seeking utility, respectively. We can display the relation-
ship by the following adjustment equations for J and W:
dJ
=
𝜏
Jdt
+ (
1
−
𝜑
2
)
dB
2
−
dB
1
+
𝜎
Jdz
t
dW
=
𝜆
Wdt
+ (
1
−
𝜑
1
)
dB
1
−
dB
2
.
(4)
Here,
𝜏
and
𝜆
are the respective growth rates for the surplus of jobs and
workers, and dz
t
denotes uncertainty over the innovation of produc-
tivity. The disturbance in the firm’s adjustment equation expresses the
uncertainty of the progression of productivity. That is not the same as in
the worker’s adjustment equation, where companies arrange the wages
with employees through planning. The movement dB
1
denotes the sur-
plus transferred from firm to workers, indicating a wage increase, and
dB
2
is delivered reversely, implying a salary cut. We should note here
that
𝜑
1
and
𝜑
2
represent the degree of difficulty for transferring surplus
between firms and workers. Parameter
𝜑
1
presents the cost associated
with the degree of difficulty when surplus moves from firms to workers,
and a higher value implies it is more difficult to transfer. This situation
takes place when the price is lower than equilibrium under upward
wage rigidity.
Fig. 2
a shows an explanation for why wages often stick below equi-
librium. If the price sticks at a low level w
S
, then we can see the firms
get more substantial surplus than at equilibrium w
E
. Thus, they have
no incentive to raise salaries if they can keep the workers from leav-
ing. From an employee perspective, if the workers want to get a better
job, then they have to consider the opportunity cost of switching jobs,
like moving and selling a house, adapting to a new company culture,
learning a new skill, etc. Overall, it is costly to get a new job. Thus,
if a worker wants to change his/her job, then he/she has to search for
jobs with higher salaries to cover the switching-job cost. As the price
mechanism already fails, the searching cost will be high. Here, we can
use
𝜑
1
to represent the degree of upward wage rigidity; a higher value
implies it is more challenging to raise wages. Usually, 0
< 𝜑
1
<
1, and
it reduces the market’s efficiency, but it still can increase workers’ sur-
plus when they ask for a pay raise. In an extraordinary case, if
𝜑
1
>
1,
then it indicates the cost is more extensive than workers can afford,
which will cause workers a loss when asking for a pay raise. In other
words, in this special case, raising the salaries will lessen a company’s
155
W.D. Chen
Economic Modelling 73 (2018) 152–162
competitiveness and shrink total surplus, or the firm can cut salaries to
improve competitiveness.
In the same way, we display another scenario when the wage sticks
above equilibrium, especially when an economic recession is coming.
Fig. 2
b demonstrates the salary is sticky at a higher price W
s
. If firms
want to cut wages, then this will provoke workers’ resistance and also
causes downward wage rigidity.
According to equations
(3) and (4)
, we now have the bellman equa-
tion:
rV
=
U
(
J
,
W
) +
𝜏
JV
J
+
𝜆
WV
W
+
1
2
𝜎
2
J
2
V
JJ
.
Solving the differential equation, we have:
V
(
W
,
J
) =
[
1
r
−
𝜆
c
]
W
c
c
+
[
1
r
−
𝜏
c
+
1
2
𝜎
2
c
(
1
−
c
)
]
J
c
c
+
A
1
W
𝛼
1
J
c
−
𝛼
1
+
A
2
W
𝛼
2
J
c
−
𝛼
2
,
where A
1
and A
2
are the weight on the reciprocation part that can be
determined by the bound conditions, and
𝛼
1
and
𝛼
2
are the roots of the
following equation.
1
2
𝜎
2
𝛼
2
+
((
1
2
−
c
)
𝜎
2
+
𝜆 − 𝜏
)
𝛼 + 𝜎
2
2
c
(
c
−
1
) +
𝜏
c
−
r
=
0
.
If we set
𝜎
2
=
0, then our model degenerates to become a determinant
model, which is regarded as a long-run convergent equilibrium if it
exists. Consider this special case, where we let
𝜎
2
=
0 and c
=
1. We
thus have a value function:
V
(
J
,
W
) =
1
r
−
𝜆
W
+
1
r
−
𝜏
J
+
AW
𝛼
J
1
−
𝛼
,
where
𝛼 =
𝜏−
r
𝜆− 𝜏
and A
=
A
1
+
A
2
. The first two terms represent work-
ers’ and firms’ value function, which have no interaction. The interac-
tion between firms and workers is based on the third term. In a Nash
bargaining solution, we concentrate on the last term, which means A
dominates the value function. The result turns into the same as
Pis-
sarides (1994)
. We now apply the function by the Nash bargaining util-
ity V
(
W
,
J
) =
W
𝛼
J
1
−
𝛼
.
We can express the interaction between workers and firms by the
surplus ratio, in which the surplus starts to transfer when the surplus
ratio hits the lower or upper bound. Let the surplus ratio of workers and
firm be denoted as k
=
W
∕
J, and k
∗
is at a perfect competitive level.
If k hits the lower bound k
∗
−
𝛿
1
, then the surplus begins to flow from
firms to workers; otherwise, k
∗
−
𝛿
1
<
k
<
k
∗
and the surplus would not
float, implying there exists upward wage rigidity. In the same way, if
the ratio k hits the upper bound k
∗
+
𝛿
2
, then the surplus starts to flow
from workers to firms; otherwise, if k
∗
<
k
<
k
∗
+
𝛿
2
, then the surplus
would not flow, implying downward wage rigidity. In a particular case,
if the market is in perfect competition, then the wage is adjusted at any
time, which means the ratio k is always at the competitive level k
∗
. In
this case, the economy will not induce any deadweight loss or friction
cost, and
𝜑
1
=
𝜑
2
=
0, indicating the economy is sensitive to a pricing
adjustment. However, in reality, the workers and firms do not respond
so rapidly. Thus, dB
1
takes place when k
=
k
∗
−
𝛿
1
and its friction cost
is
𝜑
1
, and J decreases and W increases. Conversely, dB
2
takes place at
k
=
k
∗
+
𝛿
2
and its flowing cost is
𝜑
2
, and W decreases and J increases.
Assume the ratio k hits the lower boundary, and that the surplus
begins to flow from firm to workers, or the salary is at the least tolerated
level and starts to rise. We thus now have:
V
(
J
,
W
) =
V
(
J
−
dB
1
,
W
+ (
1
−
𝜑
1
)
dB
1
)
,
(5)
where V and
𝜑
1
denote the value function and the cost, respec-
tively. Applying the Taylor expansion, we have: V
=
V
−
V
J
dB
1
+ (
1
−
𝜑
1
)
V
W
dB
1
and thus:
V
J
= (
1
−
𝜑
1
)
V
W
,
(6)
where V
J
<
V
W
when
𝜑
1
∈ (
0
,
1
)
. That indicates if there exists upward
wage rigidity, then it will cause market inefficiency, and workers will
get some loss. To distinguish our model from the conventional model,
we use
𝛼
instead of
𝛽
and set a value function like Nash bargaining
utility V
(
W
,
J
) =
W
𝛼
J
1
−
𝛼
. We can express condition
(6)
as follows:
(
1
−
𝛼)
W
= (
1
−
𝜑
1
)
𝛼
J
.
(7)
In a particular case, if
𝜑
1
=
0, implying in a competitive equilibrium
there is no sticky wage, then
𝛼
will equal the coefficient of productivity
of
𝛽
in
Pissarides (1994)
; otherwise, if
𝜑
1
>
0, then
𝛽 =
1
−
1
−
𝛼
1
−
𝛼𝜑
1
. In
this scenario, we realize that if
𝜑
1
increases, then the wage will stick
at a lower price, and the coefficient of productivity will decrease. We
should note here that this not means only the coefficient is decreasing,
but that the relationship in equation
(7)
also becomes unstable; see
Fig. 3
.
According to
Mortensen and Pissarides (1994)
, when a firm creates a
new vacant job its expected profit is zero. Recalling equation
(1)
, we can
get the flowing cost by
𝜅 =
J
(
𝜃)
q
(
𝜃)
, where q
(
𝜃)
−
1
is the average time
that elapses before a vacancy is filled. As p
(
𝜃) = 𝜃
q
(
𝜃)
and according
to equation
(7)
, we have p
(
𝜃)
W
=
𝛼(
1
−
𝜑
1
)(
1
−
𝛼)
−
1
𝜃
q
(
𝜃)
J
=
𝛼(
1
−
𝜑
1
)(
1
−
𝛼)
−
1
𝜃𝜅.
Combining equations
(2) and (7)
, we can express a
wage equation where the firm sets a lower wage than the competitive
equilibrium:
w
=
(
1
−
𝛼
1
−
𝛼𝜑
1
)
b
+
(
1
−
1
−
𝛼
1
−
𝛼𝜑
1
)
y
+
(
1
−
1
−
𝛼
1
−
𝛼𝜑
1
)
𝜅𝜃.
(8)
We should note here that the degree of upward wage rigidity
𝜑
1
increase will reduce the influence of productivity on the wage, because
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |