The Case of Salonica
In late April 1897, local Jewish journals marveled that the recently an-
nounced war between the Ottoman Empire and Greece had not led to
any disturbances in the nearby Ottoman port city of Salonica, despite the
city’s proximity to the theater of war and its intimate involvement in the
conflict.
5
Although it housed the depot for soldiers departing for and re-
turning from the front on a daily basis, Salonica had somehow managed
to remain free of the violence besetting the nearby countryside. Reports
spoke with admiration of the “perfect calm” that reigned in the city while
battles raged not far away. One article published by the Jewish-run Jour-
nal de Salonique just a few days after the outbreak of hostilities explained
the situation thus: “The incidents occurring on the [Greek-Ottoman] bor-
der have not damaged in any respect the excellent relations maintained
. . . between all of the different [religious] communities.”
6
The fact that general order had been maintained in a city that housed
Jewish, Muslim, Greek Orthodox, and other Christian groups was im-
pressive, especially because spontaneous urban conflicts between Otto-
man Muslims and Christians were recorded elsewhere in the empire in
1897.
7
In these other areas, local Muslims and Christians appeared to be
reenacting on their own streets the war between the Ottoman and Greek
states with whom they identified or were identified by others. What was
different, then, about Salonica that had kept its inhabitants quiet and co-
operative, as the city’s journalists noted with great pride?
As it turns out, the situation was not entirely as peaceful as the local
press made it out to be. Moving beyond the newspapers’ claims of peace
and quiet, a variety of sources also point to other, unwritten stories of
intercommunal relations during the war, stories that can help us to piece
together a more complete picture of underlying patterns of socialization
and conflict in Salonica around the turn of the twentieth century. Tensions
or conflicts of any sort, however, were touchy subjects for the journalists
and communal leaders trying to mold the image of their community ac-
cording to their own ideal vision.
8
For this reason, they preferred to focus
on those acts that fit this vision or could be used to further it.
Without a doubt, most of the patriotic displays offered by Salonican
Jewish Imperial Allegiance and the Greco-Ottoman War of 1897 · 31
Jews during the war matched the hopes of their communal leaders per-
fectly and were featured prominently in their publications; most were
organized and orderly acts of patriotic sentiment that met with the ap-
proval of all authorities and evinced Ottoman Jews’ positive identifica-
tion with the state. This positive identification was marked by signs of
gratitude for the empire, which became a great and beneficent protector
in the eyes of many Ottoman Jews. As I will argue here, it also often trans-
lated into special displays of affection for local Muslims. (In the context
of the war, Muslims came to embody the protective force of the empire
more than ever, as they filled the ranks of the Ottoman army.) Through-
out 1897, such acts received continual praise in the pages of the Ladino
and French Jewish newspapers of Salonica and garnered attention even
from local Ottoman papers and representatives. At this time, the city’s
Jewish journalists announced that their coreligionists across the empire
were proving their unflagging loyalty to the state by outdoing their usual
shows of patriotism.
The first notices of active Jewish involvement in the war effort began
to appear in Jewish periodicals of the city, namely, La Epoka (in Ladino)
and the French-language Le Journal de Salonique, in late April, some two
weeks after the official outbreak of hostilities.
9
At this time, the papers re-
counted the story of two Jewish youths from Salonica who volunteered to
fight “alongside their Muslim compatriots” as soon as the pair had heard
the announcements of war. The pages of La Epoka assured readers that
these two young men, reportedly unable to suppress their intense feel-
ings of patriotism, hailed from “honorable Salonican families.” Their re-
quest was met with flattering words by the marshal in charge (Kazım Pa-
sha), and their departure brought an enormous crowd to the train station.
Immediately before leaving, the two were heard shouting out in Turkish,
“Padişahımız çok yaşa!” (Long live our sultan!). The young men’s cries
had come “straight from the bottom of their hearts” and had inspired the
thousands gathered there to repeat the call, readers learned. The article
concluded enthusiastically, noting that over 50 Jewish men had already
applied to volunteer as Ottoman soldiers. The newspaper predicted that
approximately 150 young Jewish men from Salonica would be enlisted
soon, though it did not explain where this number came from.
10
News of Jewish volunteers to the army soon gave way to other news
of Jewish involvement in the war effort in general and support for the
Ottoman army specifically. Jews joined efforts organized by Muslim men,
32 · Julia Phillips Cohen
women, and youth groups in Salonica. In particular, they began to par-
ticipate in new patriotic projects such as those of the recently organized
Red Crescent Society.
11
When subscriptions to the Red Crescent effort
were listed in the papers, the names of Jewish philanthropists regularly
appeared alongside the names of Muslim philanthropists.
12
The papers
also wrote of how Jewish women’s societies sent money to the temporary
hospitals organized near the battle fronts. Around the same time, a group
of Jewish youths began collecting money to have beds sent to the front
lines, another action that paralleled Red Crescent projects. Soon notices
appeared of Jewish doctors from Vienna and Ottoman Jewish medical
students recently returned from their studies in Paris volunteering their
services in the border region where the fighting was taking place.
13
Sub-
scriptions in honor of the displaced Muslims of Crete saw constant dona-
tions from Jews as well as Muslims in the city.
14
Salonica’s Jewish press
also published notes from the chief rabbi of Crete, telling of how 100
Muslim families from that island had been given shelter in the homes of
local Jews.
15
By the second week of May, the actions of a new group established
by Jewish youths in the city captured the special attention of Ladino and
Ottoman journals in Salonica. The society made its debut by organizing a
special reception for wounded Ottoman soldiers returning from the front
to Salonica’s train station. As the wagons of beleaguered fighters pulled
to a stop, they were greeted by the group, which offered each soldier
his own silver-plated watch and chain as well as a pack of cigarettes.
Reports noted the soldiers’ gratitude for the gesture. Over the weeks that
followed, the story of this “most moving” of efforts offered to the state’s
heroes by the young Jewish men of Salonica circulated through various
papers of the city as well as the Ottoman capital.
16
Indeed, most acts of patriotism demonstrated by Ottoman Jews
merged so well with the ideal visions of the Jewish leaders of the city
that the journalists’ job was made easy; they recounted the news immedi-
ately and with pride. Yet, since their larger project aimed at shaping their
readership’s self-perception, memory, and even behavior, they were also
willing to do what they deemed necessary to change reality, or even bury
it, if they believed that it might endanger the public face of their commu-
nity or the maintenance of stability in the city more generally.
We see this approach made explicit in a correspondence published
in La Epoka not long after fighting had ceased: at this moment, the city’s
Jewish Imperial Allegiance and the Greco-Ottoman War of 1897 · 33
Jewish journalists openly discussed their goal of consciously shaping the
way their community would be seen by contemporaries and by future
generations. Discussing the Jewish “patriots” who had volunteered as
soldiers during the short war, the paper issued a call for all 41 of the Sa-
lonican Jewish youths who had ultimately become Ottoman soldiers to
register their names at the office of its press.
17
The information gathered
about each young man was limited, the piece explained, but La Epoka’s
editors hoped to publish a list that would include each soldier’s full
name along with a brief biographical sketch.
Soon after reading this notice, a correspondent writing from Adriano-
ple (Edirne) suggested that the paper consider publishing photographs
of each of his “brave young compatriots.”
18
The following issue of La
Epoka quoted the reasoning behind the Adrianople correspondent’s sug-
gestion in more detail: “During the Russo-Turkish Campaign,” the piece
read, “many Jews from Salonica enrolled in the army. What memory has
remained of those patriots? None! If we do not attempt to collect the pho-
tographs of those who proved willing to go to war this time, within a few
years, perhaps even in a matter of months, the memory of their service
will be reduced to the newspaper articles written during the war.” In
other words, he concluded, “they will be forgotten.”
19
Another contribu-
tor to the paper remarked that it was indeed very important to “always
maintain an active memory of the Jewish participation in the last cam-
paign [and] . . . to do more than take the photographs of these young
volunteers.” “We also need to include details about each action taken
by Jewish communities on the patriotic occasion of the war,” he added,
“and publish them together in a brochure that every Jew should keep as
a prized possession.”
20
Added to the above acts of patriotism, that brochure, if it did appear,
might have included other “positive” patriotic acts, such as the special
communal prayers for Ottoman victories recited throughout the war,
21
Jewish schoolgirls who sewed soldiers’ uniforms,
22
or sentimental stories
about poor Jewish pupils who bought patriotic supplements of Ottoman
newspapers in order to support their Muslim peers recently orphaned
by the war.
23
It might have mentioned the Jewish girl who visited ailing
soldiers,
24
or the doctors who volunteered to heal them, or those who
made public appeals to their fellow Jews to turn in their hats and “take
out their fezzes,” so as to display their patriotism more evidently on a
day-to-day basis as they walked down their city’s streets.
25
It might have
34 · Julia Phillips Cohen
also mentioned the Jewish man who risked his life to warn members of
an Ottoman regiment near Larissa that the bridge they planned to cross
was loaded with dynamite.
26
Many of these acts were planned, and all
of them were officially condoned, but they were not the only forms of
patriotism that Ottoman Jews exhibited during the war.
There were also clear instances of Jewish identification with the em-
pire and with Muslims that concerned rather than pleased the Jewish
leadership. These acts of patriotism were often spontaneous and consti-
tuted what I will call negative acts of patriotism; that is, they were always
defined in opposition to a third party who became the adversary. When
one such chaotic moment threatened to turn violent within the city itself
during the height of the war, the Salonican Jewish press faced a dilemma.
The disturbance did not match its reports of ethno-religious harmony in
the midst of war, nor did it fit with its position that “the Salonican resi-
dent represents the ideal of the malleable and governable citizen.”
27
To complete our picture of Jewish patriotism in the Ottoman Empire,
we need to look elsewhere for other stories, both those that were not told
in contemporary Jewish papers and those that were mentioned within
their pages only in other contexts. One such case surfaced in Salonican
Jewish newspapers some two months before war was declared.
In early February, Le Journal de Salonique called for the serious atten-
tion of police concerning the “scandalous activities” taking place in an
open space behind Hamidiye Boulevard every Saturday. There, the ar-
ticle explained, numerous gangs of young Greek Orthodox and Jewish
ruffians gather and “arrange themselves in the order of battle.” At this
point, they begin throwing stones, which “at times rain down with such
fury that they leave the site of battle and injure innocent passers-by on
the boulevard.” Local Greek and Jewish leaders had done all they could
to discourage this behavior, the piece suggested, but nothing had worked
to combat the “instinct of aggressiveness which reigns among these little
scoundrels.” At this point, the article concluded, only the strong hand of
the police could help.
28
The fighting appears to have been a form of ritualized violence.
29
It
was not new but rather a “chronic sickness” that was taxing the nerves
of those who cared about the community, a piece appearing the follow-
ing day in La Epoka explained.
30
The Ladino article urged that rabbis ad-
dress the problem in sermons throughout the city’s synagogues, decrying
both the activity itself and the profanation of the Jewish Sabbath. It also
Jewish Imperial Allegiance and the Greco-Ottoman War of 1897 · 35
warned the parents of these troublemakers to see that they quit their vio-
lent ways and thus avoid punishment by the authorities. It is noteworthy,
however, that the fights occurring between Salonican Greek and Jewish
youths only made the news when journalists or other communal figures
decided it was time to intervene. Since such battles were disagreeable to
Jewish leaders, they would either work to halt them or keep silent. The
approach Salonica’s Jewish journalists took to the rock fights illustrates
their conscious use of the tactics of interventionism and silence, alter-
nately, when faced with what they felt were the unacceptable actions of
members of their own community.
The case of these urban battles is important for another reason as well:
it offers an example of how intercommunal relations in the city were not
as idyllic as Le Journal de Salonique and La Epoka would claim two months
later, as they referenced the harmonious atmosphere of Salonica during
the Greco-Ottoman War. In other words, despite the surface of calm and
apparent cooperation between all groups in the city during the conflict
of 1897, relations between certain groups of Jews and Greeks in the city
remained embattled.
31
While both papers hinted only obliquely at the question of how many
people took part in the rock fights or of how large an audience came to
watch them each Saturday, both clarified that they considered the specta-
tors of these rows guilty as well. Still, their reports concentrated their at-
tention mostly on the Greek and Jewish rock throwers themselves, point-
ing out their youth, their lack of education, and their low social station,
all factors which suggested that the unfortunate pattern might still be
“corrected.”
Yet, on 28 April 1897, some ten days after war with Greece was de-
clared, an incident occurred that greatly upset those in charge of the
Jewish community of Salonica. This event seems to have involved large
numbers of Jews hailing from a wide variety of backgrounds and ages,
making it more disturbing than the routine rock fights that journalists as-
cribed to a group of lower-class Jewish and Greek youths. What is more,
it occurred in a central location in the town, under the eyes of many,
including foreign observers.
That day, as a trainload of wounded Greek prisoners returning from
the battlefield passed through Salonica, local Muslims and Jews report-
edly gathered at the train station and began taunting the train’s passen-
gers. The Greek minister of foreign affairs later reported to the French
36 · Julia Phillips Cohen
embassy in Athens that the crowds, consisting of Salonican Jews and
Muslims, had exceeded 15,000 souls.
32
While this number may easily be
an exaggeration, it nonetheless gives us an impression of the significant
figures involved and, at the very least, the enormity with which the event
came to be painted by some. Apparently, the threats the Jews and Mus-
lims hurled at the Greek prisoners did not stop for over an hour, as they
followed the railcars that made their way across Salonica’s streets until
ending at its famous White Tower, where the prisoners were to be held.
33
Although various accounts indicate that the Jews and Muslims of Sa-
lonica had come out together to confront the Greeks who represented
their “enemy,” certain consular and foreign reports suggested that Jews
had been at the center of this outburst. In fact, one Athenian paper ac-
cused the entire Salonican Jewish community of having participated in
the disturbance.
34
The clear hyperbole of this last claim aside, the fact
that Jews had been especially visible during the troubles posed a great
problem for the leaders of the Jewish community and for its journalists,
who responded to this event only with silence. In fact, throughout the
following weeks, they did not mention the disturbance even once. The inter-
communal brawls and fighting that had previously occurred offstage, so
to speak, in peacetime, and away from their cities’ centers, had been dis-
turbing but manageable enough. Once war broke out, and tensions were
suddenly cast in such clear political molds, their former methods—calls
to the chief rabbi for sermons and to the police for action—no longer
sufficed.
The total silence of the Jewish press offers a reminder of the more com-
plex and sometimes uncomfortable aspects of the very patriotism these
journalists espoused and attempted to foster among their readership. The
silence of the local papers on the subject seems indicative, also, of the
limitations of their influence over their own communities. In the case of
the stone-throwing boys, local journalists had interceded and, at least for
a time, succeeded in bringing the issue to the attention of the larger com-
munity and the authorities, halting much of the violence as a result. This
time, the story of the harassment of Greek prisoners in Salonica had been
picked up abroad and by the Athenian press in particular, which blamed
Salonica’s Jews for the incident.
While some of the more overtly political tensions of the April train
depot incident may have superimposed themselves onto previous pat-
terns of ritualized violence, such as the rock fights, these had now taken
Jewish Imperial Allegiance and the Greco-Ottoman War of 1897 · 37
on novel, urgent, and political layers of meaning in the context of war-
time for all involved. This added dangerous undertones to such tensions,
which could no longer be dismissed simply as the work of uneducated
youths. Each time an urban conflict arose in the midst of the war, it be-
came more clearly cast as a symbolically charged political act.
Also striking was the total sense of confidence and ownership of the
public space that Salonican Jews had exhibited during the incident, as
they goaded the Greek prisoners passing through the town. With the ad-
ditional police surveillance of wartime, and the new presence of Ottoman
soldiers in the city, the Jews—already the single largest religious group
in Ottoman Salonica—appear to have felt a bolstered sense of security in
1897. Their great success in performing patriotic acts, and the applause
with which these had been met by local Ottoman officials and journals,
may have contributed even further to such spontaneous manifestations.
One contemporary observer, a representative of the Alliance Israélite
Universelle (AIU) in Salonica, expressed his concern about the excessive
“zeal and noise” that had accompanied the Jews’ public demonstrations
of loyalty to the Ottoman Empire during the war. He worried that the
Jews had abandoned their usual reserve and thus turned local Greeks
against them.
35
Indeed, though contemporary Jewish observers do not
seem to have been inclined to mention this fact, there were plenty of
historical precedents of Greek-Jewish tensions created during earlier
conflicts that might have given reason to be wary.
36
Moreover, the Alli-
ance representative’s discomfort with the Jewish community’s excesses
further exposes the undercurrent of intercommunal tensions in late Ot-
toman Salonica, tensions that appear to have deepened during the war.
Disorganized and unplanned acts such as these greatly disturbed Jew-
ish elites in Salonica, who hoped to erase either their practice or their
memory, or both. Despite the claims of Jewish journalists to the contrary,
the war raging off in the distance had, in fact, also found its way home to
the streets of Salonica.
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