Analysis
581
Of course, not all animals have cords like humans. Monkeys and even sea
lions have similar biology, but lack the sophisticated resonance control that
makes human-type speech possible. Cats and dogs, on the other hand, have a
different mechanism that produces a rippling effect of several pulses in combi-
nation. As air moves over soft, loose tissue it causes wave-like motions, flapping
much like a flag. The intensity and density of the pulses therefore depends on
the air velocity over the membrane. Lion roars start soft and low with distinct
glottal pulses, building to a dense roar. Frequency also moves up and down,
starting as low as 30Hz, building to around 240Hz, and then dropping to around
120Hz.
The Vocal Tract
With the mouth and vocal cords open, the tract behaves like a semi-open pipe.
With either end closed the resonant mode changes. During normal speech and
singing the human cords stay mostly closed, so the behaviour is of a half-open
pipe. But when screaming or voicing a stopped consonant or pre-plosive, the
tract is respectively wide open or mostly closed at both ends. The natural res-
onance of the voiced modes in a human vocal tract are given by its length,
about 17cm, for which we get a quarter-wavelength mode. Setting
l
= 0
.
17,
then
F
=
c/λ
=
c/
4
l
= 340
/
0
.
68. This gives us frequencies of 500Hz, 1
,
000Hz,
1
,
500Hz . . . Knowing the length of an animal’s vocal tract we can work out the
characteristic resonances.
Articulation
The length calculation above gives a general resonant behaviour, but most ani-
mals can either shorten or lengthen the tract, or apply other muscle structures
to constrict it in certain locations. Furthermore, the shape of the mouth, lips,
and tongue can change and a flap called the velum can open and close to admit
more or less air into the nasal cavity.
Adapted from Fant (1960), the illustration in figure 52.6 shows cross sec-
tions through the human vocal tract at various places along its length. The
shape obviously has some impact on the resonance, but as a simplification we
only need consider the total area of any cross section. In some places it is much
wider or narrower than others. The difference between humans and other mam-
mals is that we have a fixed larynx, which is much lower. This allows us to use
the full range of the vocal tract for communication. Other animals that vocalise
only occasionally, like ruminants, must move their larynx out of position near
the top of the respiratory tract and down into a position where it can effectively
resonate.
For dogs and cats this movement is large. For sounds like whining and snorts,
most species do not move their larynx and the velum remains open, so a nasal
formant is always present. For loud sounds many species close the velum so air
doesn’t pass through the nasal cavity. This all varies greatly between species,
but the general principle is the same; we can reduce the tract to a cascade of
short pipe models separated by impedances that create some back propagation
and resonate like a partially closed pipe.
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