Locomotion Phases
So far we have only considered the GRF phases of one foot. What also changes
is the relationship between two feet. A simplified illustration is shown in the
right frame of figure 49.2. While walking there is a considerable overlap of
contact. The trailing foot does not leave the ground until the leading one has
moved into its second phase. Creeping along we tend to keep both feet on the
550
Footsteps
ground for as long as possible. Once the pattern becomes a run there are times
when neither foot touches the ground, and the actor bounces along sometimes
only on the balls of the feet.
Ground Texture Acoustics
Given a force curve which we can create by knowing the actor speed, weight,
approximate foot area, and some footwear material with a certain hardness,
we can approximate the acoustic interaction with a range of surfaces. The
impulse given to the ground is the product of force and contact time, which
will give us a possible excitation pulse for filter bank or waveguide models of
hard materials like wood, concrete, stone, and metal. Tempering the sharpness
of this pulse allows us to introduce a measure of hardness. For highly resonant
surfaces like metal panels the contact time increases damping, so we can inte-
grate the GRF to obtain a decay time. Granular textures like gravel can be
obtained by directly driving a crushing model with the GRF so that grain den-
sity and energy is directly proportional to the pressure. Unusual textures like
snow deform asymmetrically, causing a squealing sound as frictional stresses
cause heat, melting, rebonding, and permanently altering the structure (crush-
ing it to ice). We may also employ thresholds on the GRF to obtain nonlinear
effects like creaking wooden floorboards, or even trigger world events like ice
breaking.
Model
Our model will be broken clearly into two sections, one for control and a set
of synthesisers specific to the ground texture. A control system that models
human walking comprises a bistable or reciprocating mechanism, two legs, and
two feet. Phases for six control parts, ball, edge, and heel on each foot, are
derived at two levels. The first splits the phase of a master oscillator to obtain
a pair of subphases that can vary in duration and position within the main cycle.
These are further split into three GRF contributions which are summed to form
the resultant curve for each foot. Most importantly, of course, we need at least
two sound generators that can overlap. We should be aware that there’s no
restriction to a single, exclusive surface texture. Synthesisers can be blended to
produce mixtures of grass, soil, gravel, or any combination. This allows smooth
transitions across changing terrain instead of having a discrete sound for each
categorised texture that changes abruptly at a boundary. Since each texture
will use the GRF curve differently a preconditioner is used to shape the curve
accordingly. The model is summarised in figure 49.3.
Method
This is best implemented by a synchronous system that splits a phasor into two
windows. Half-cycles of a cosine function could be used to approximate con-
tributory pressure curves, but with similar efficiency we can get much better
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