Course paper

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY of UZBEKISTAN

named after MIRZO ULUGBEK

FACULTY of FOREIGN PHILOLOGY

Department of Comparative linguistics

Theme: Teaching euphemisms in English classes

COURSE PAPER

Submitted by: Xusanov Q.

III year student
Scientific adviser: Sobirova N

Associate professor

TASHKENT 2018


CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER I. THE CONCEPT OF“EUPHEMISM” IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE ….…6

1.1 THE CONCEPT OF“EUPHEMISM” AND ITS FEATURES………………………………………………………..6

1.2 USE OF EUPHEMISM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE………………………………….12
CHAPTER II.TEACHING EUPHEMISMS IN ENLISH CLASSES

2.1. TEACHING EUPHEMISMS IN READING ACTIVITIES

2.2. New teaching metods in teaching euphemism

CONCLUSION

RESUME

THE LIST OF USED LITERATURE

“If euphemism doesn’t exist, the movement of the world will stop and it will be filled with hatred”

Enright D.J.

INTRODUCTION

After the Independence great importance is attached to the study and teaching of foreign languages in our country. While learning any foreign language we should study literature, grammar, phonetics, stylistics, history of that language and, certainly, lexicology. One of the preconditions that guarantees knowledge of the language is to know its vocabulary, including its one the most important sections that are identified as euphemistic circumlocutions.

Euphemisms constitute a treasury of the language. It is in this segment of lexicon where a reflection of the nations history, originality of culture and life can be identified. Euphemistic circumlocutions often carry bright national character

and this very fact explains topicality of any research related to the study of the given layer of lexical units. The relevance of the work is determined also by insufficient knowledge of linguo-cultural features of euphemisms. Euphemism as the phenomenon is of particular interest, as in the last decades euphemism creation process takes place with increasing intensity, and they are widely distributed in various areas of speech activity. Including every-day life and political sphere.

Any euphemisms may be defined as a substitution of an agreeable or less offensive expression in place of the one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant to the listener. It makes expression less troublesome for the speaker. Anthropocentric nature of euphemisms is well-known. Our universal emotions are characterized by national peculiarities. The following linguists as A.Kacev, A.Keith, K.Burridge, O.Obvinceva investigated euphemisms as linguistic and unique phenomena of the language.

Euphemisms for the majority of people are the device to create humorous situation. Most can get along without them in everyday life, but they are found everywhere not only in emotive prose but also in the journalistic style, in highly emotional speech, in extreme cases to lessen the impact of the situation on the people making it sound milder. Our conceptual system plays a central role in defining our everyday realities. The perception may be global or local. Global world view is presented by philosophical, scientific, religious world views. Local world view is presented through sociological, informational, physical, artistic world views. Conceptual world view is very rich, it covers a lot of things. It contains different communicative types of thinking, verbal and nonverbal. As the language is the spirit of the people speaking it, we may state that the inner forms of the language and the conceptual world view behind the language is realized through languages.Any language forms the world view behind the language and at the same time it reflects world other views. The most important sphere of a man’s world and his personality is the sphere of emotions. It is the sphere of psychology and emotive evaluations. Our emotional world is one of the local world views behind the language. The act of cognition is emotionally colored. Emotions cover all our spheres of life. The objective world is endless, but a man is limited in the process of cognition. Any world view contains personal subjective cognition. Thus we speak of personal, subjective interpretation of the objective world. A man reacts to the outer and inner pressure by different states of activities: perception, expressing wishes, points of view, speaking, and physical activities.

The topicality of the research.The topicality for choosing the teaching euphemisms for analysis was also the fact that despite the number of works written in the field, there are still many aspects that have not been examined yet. The teaching euphemisms in English and the new methods are the aspects which still need to be researched.

The object of the research deals with different theories and approaches of euphemism and teaching euphemisms in English lessons

The subject of the research is different theories and approaches of linguists in cognitive linguistics.

The aim and tasks of the research.The aim of this research is to define the basic conceptual features euphemisms and teaching euphemisms in various educational levels by completing following tasks:

-To determine the sphere of the etymology and usage of taboos and euphemisms in English.

-to illuminate and study the theoretical aspects and classifications of taboo and euphemisms

-

Literature review. The problems related to euphemisms was studied by such linguists as V.I. Zhelvis,I.V.Arnold, A.M. Katsev, B. Cooper, J. Niemann and K. Silver, R.V. Holder and X. Rawson, L.P. Krisin, E.I. Sheigal, G.G. Kuzhim, V.I. Zabotkina,DilraboRustamova ,N.Ismatullayev,F.M.Mamatova. They studied them from one separate angle. In our research we investigate 2 different types of euphemisms: a conventional and a political and those are approached from the point of view of their structure, semantics and function.

The methods used in the research. We used comparative analysis, comparative-historical method and diachronic approach to achieve our goal and accomplish above-mentioned tasks.

Theoretical value of the research. This course paper may help as a theoretical manual for further researches carried out in this field.

Practical value of the research.The practical significance of the work lies in the possibility of using the results of the study in English lessons with various activities.

The structure of the research. This course paper consists of 35 pages including introduction, two main chapters, conclusion, resume and the list of used literature. The first chapter is devoted tothe study of the concept of euphemism and the ways it is defined in linguistic literature. Chapter II dwellson the problems connected with teaching euphemisms in English classes .

Conclusion summarizes all the stages of the work.

The list of used literature that was used in the process of writing the given paper.

CHAPTER I. THE CONCEPT OF“EUPHEMISM” IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
1.1.THE CONCEPT OF “EUPHEMISM” AND ITS FEATURES

Language is a system of characters that came into being from men's common labor, being developed and enriched in the course of time. With the development of our society, a fair number of words are labeled frivolous, vulgar or at least inconsiderate, and some kinds of languages ​​are forbidden, as different religions, superstitious believes, social customs and other reasons. In communication, for better maintaining social relationship and exchanging ideas, people have to resort to a new different kind of language, which can make distasteful ideas seem acceptable or even desirable¹. There are words in every language which people instinctively avoid because they are considered indecent, indelicate, rude, too direct, or impolite. As the "offensive" referents, for which these words stand, must still be alluded to, they are often described in a roundabout way, by using substitutes called euphemisms². Geoffrey Leach in his "Semantics" discusses euphemism as "the linguistic equivalent of disinfectant".

There are words in every language which people instinctively avoid because they are considered indecent, indelicate, rude, too direct, or impolite. As the "offensive" referents, for which these words stand, must still be alluded to, they are often described in a roundabout way, by using substitutes called euphemisms. Geoffrey Leach in his "Semantics" discusses euphemism as "the linguistic equivalent of disinfectant".

Euphemisms are diverse in structure and very significant linguistic phenomenon available in the lexical systems of languages. Euphemism - is not only a trope consisting of an implicit expression of a negative assessment, but also an element of the structure of language, which plays an important role in its historical development, as this phenomenon is a continuous process of replacing some names for the other ones, based on a continuous evaluation and re-evaluation of human forms of expression emanating from a desire for successful communication.

There are many works devoted to euphemisms directly or somehow touching upon this problem. The initiative to the study of euphemisms was suggested by such prominent scholars as G. Paul, J. Vandryes, S. Bruno, Kanye C., Sh. Bally, E. Benveniste, L. Bloomfield, S. Vidlak, I.R. Galperin, B.A, Larin. Further development of this issue can be found in the works os such linguists as V.I. Zhelvis, A.M. Katsev, B. Cooper, J. Niemann and K. Silver, lexicographers R.V. Holder and X. Rawson, researchers L.P. Krisin, E.I. Sheigal, G.G. Kuzhim, V.I. Zabotkina, V.P. Moskvin, and others.

Despite a vast number of papers addressing the phenomenon of euphemism, in scientific literature there is no common understanding of this phenomenon that has been achieved yet. The dynamic and multidimensional nature of euphemisms are responsible for a wide variety of lexical and grammatical forms of emotional neutrality or stylistic coloring, the variability of their euphemistic potential. These properties lead to euphemisms, euphemism that the problem of its definition is of certain difficulty for researchers. So, in the linguistic dictionary compiled by O.S. Akhmanova the following definition of this phenomenon is given:

Euphemisms are emotionally neutral words or expressions used in place of their synonymous words and expressions representing speaker obscene, rude or tactless.

We can come across a similar definition in the linguistic work of a famous researcher D.N. Shmelev³, who characterizes a euphemism as "refraining from inappropriate words, a mild expression, serving under certain conditions for the replacement of symbols that appear to the speaker as undesirable, not very polite, and sometimes even too harsh"⁴.

Encyclopedic Dictionary under the title "Linguistics", edited by V.N. Yartseva gives the following definition of euphemisms: euphemisms are emotionally neutral words or expressions used in place of their synonymous words or expressions that appear to the speaker as obscene, rude or tactless. They also replace taboo or archaic names. Under euphemisms understood also occasional individual contextual replacements of some other words to distort or disguise the true nature referred to".

Another scientist – D.E. Rosenthal gives approximately the same interpretation of the euphemism, calling it a "softening the designation of an object or phenomenon, softer expression instead of a rough"⁵.

X. Fowler explains euphemism as a soft, undefined or periphrastic expression to replace the rough one.

I.R. Galperin gives another definition of the term “euphemism” identifying it as a word or phrase that is used to replace the offensive word or expression for a relatively more acceptable⁶.

A. Katsev identifies euphemisms as those expressions or words that have the effect of contributing to mitigate the indirect substitutes for terrible, shameful or odious names, that are brought to life due to moral or religious motives⁷.

Allan K. and K. Berridzh define euphemism as an alternative expression used to the one which is not preferred in the society in order to avoid a possible loss of face of either the speaker or the audience, or any third party"⁸.

E. Tyurina calls euphemisms soft and permitted, pejorative-allegorical, and sometimes more acceptable for some reason or other words or expressions that are used instead of thematically stigmatic part or socially incorrect antecedent, instead of words or expression that the speaker thinks to be as banned, indecent, unacceptable from the point of view of moral norms accepted in the society, or even just rude and tactless ".

J. Lawrence considers euphemism to be that form of words, which (according to the different reasons) expresses the idea in a relaxed or veiled or more respectful form. And this relaxed form, sometimes only apparent⁹.

J. Niemann and K. Silver think euphemism to be the use of non-offensive or pleasant term instead of a direct, offensive, thus masking the truth¹⁰.

One more symbol of euphemism can be found in the research of Krisin L.P. who defines a euphemism as "an indirect, periphrastic and thus mitigating designation of the given object, property or action ..."¹¹

Fromkin and Rodman¹² define a euphemism as "a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or serves to avoid frightening or unpleasant subjects". "The Oxford Companion to the English Language" explains a euphemism in a similar way, saying that it is a word or phrase used as polite replacement for another, which is considered too vulgar, too painful or offensive to religious susceptibilities. In the Hutchinson's encyclopedia a euphemism is defined as a figure of speech whose name in Greek means 'speaking well of something'. To speak or write euphemistically is to use a milder, more polite, less direct, or even less honest expression rather than one that is considered too blunt, vulgar, direct or revealing. It is also important to note that euphemism may be treated as a synonym as it can be used to replace a word having a similar meaning. Also, euphemisms present different degrees of euphemisation, i.e. some euphemisms cover the embarrassing or taboo nature of the words better than the other euphemisms. According to Rawson, euphemisms are powerful linguistic tools that "are embedded so deeply in

our language that few of us, even those who pride themselves on being plainspoken, ever get through a day without using them"¹³ . The need for euphemism is both social and emotional, as it allows discussion of taboo subjects (such as sex, personal appearances or religion) and acts as a pressure valve whilst maintaining the appearance of civility.

A euphemism is a substitution of an agreeable or less offensive expression in place of one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant to the receiver, or to make it less troublesome for the speaker. The deployment of euphemisms is a central aspect within the public application of political correctness. It may also substitute a description of something or someone to avoid revealing secret, holy, or sacred names to the uninitiated, or to obscure the identity of the subject of a conversation from potential eavesdroppers. Some euphemisms are intended to amuse¹⁴.

The following wording presents a euphemism as a word or phrase that stands in for another word or phrase, chosen to mask or soften the true meaning of what is being expressed. A euphemism may be used for superstitious reasons, due to religious or cultural taboos, or for political reasons. For a fiction writer, euphemisms, in dialogue, can be helpful in revealing character.

Fromkin and Rodman define a euphemism as "a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or serves to avoid frightening or unpleasant subjects". "The Oxford Companion to the English Language" explains a euphemism in a similar way, saying that it is a word or phrase used as polite replacement for another, which is considered too vulgar, too painful or offensive to religious susceptibilities. In the Hutchinson's encyclopedia a euphemism is defined as a figure of speech whose name in Greek means 'speaking well of something'. To speak or write euphemistically is to use a milder, more polite, less direct, or even less honest expression rather than one that is considered too blunt, vulgar, direct or revealing. It is also important to note that euphemism may be treated as a synonym as it can be used to replace a word having a similar meaning. Also, euphemisms present different degrees of euphemization, i.e. some euphemisms cover the embarrassing or taboo nature of the words better than the other euphemisms.

Whichever definition of a euphemism we take it is perceived as a kind of polite and roundabout mode of expression, which is used to soften or beautify the unpleasantness of reality. This statement will be based on Williams definition which says that euphemism is a kind of linguistic elevation or amelioration specifically directed toward finding socially acceptable words for concepts that many people can not easily speak of. This definition best summarizes the essence of a euphemism treating it as linguistic elevation with the aim of finding socially acceptable words for those which are unacceptable.

Thus, we can formulate a definition that reflects the meaning of euphemisms given above: euphemism is a replacement of any unauthorized or unwanted words or expressions for a more correct one in order to avoid direct naming of everything that can cause negative feelings of the speaker as well as of the interlocutor, and also used with the purpose to mask certain facts of reality.

This definition we will use as a basic one for our further research.

1.2 Etymology

The word euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemo, meaning "auspicious/good/fortunate speech/kind" which in turn is derived from the Greek root-words eu (ευ), "good/well" + pheme (φήμη) "speech/speaking". The euphemism was originally a word or phrase used in place of a religious word or phrase that should not be spoken aloud; etymologically, the eupheme is the opposite of the blaspheme (evil-speaking). The primary example of taboo words requiring the use of a euphemism are the unspeakable names for a deity, such as Persephone, Hecate, or Nemesis. Euphemism was itself used as a euphemism by the ancient Greeks, meaning 'to keep a holy silence' (speaking well by not speaking at all).

From the early beginning of language euphemisms have probably existed at least in the religious aspect. Gods, whether benign or malign, had been treated with respect to terror. As an example, the Ancient Greek term for the Furies and the Avenging Gods was the Eumenides who was regarded as' the kindly one 'or' the good humored lady "in the hope that they might be flattered into being less furious.

Anglo- Saxon society was the golden age in the expression of language and the source of four-letter words which were many innuendos and direct references to sex. Many of these taboos during the Anglo-Saxon's era survived until the 14th century. Chaucer's Pardoner in "The Canterbury Tales" rails against those who rend the body of Christ. On the contrary, Chaucer is free in his description of women's most intimate parts¹⁵.

In the 16th century, Shakespeare used an arsenal of sexual innuendos in his dramas and sonnets. He reflected his society's panache and its strange mixture of religiosity and irreverence in his characters' speech about swearing. For instance, in "Henry IV" and "King Lear" there are so many swearing contests reflecting not merely willingness to entertain and expand the invectives but also the importance of class structure in setting linguistic patterns. The swearers were the aristocrats aping the manners of the lower classes. The aristocracy developed their own elaborate court language, so called, 'euphemism' characterized by circumlocutions and excessive verbiage. It was perhaps significant that by the early 1580 "s. The author George Blunt used the term 'euphemism" in English defining it as a good or favorable interpretation of a bad word.

Euphemisms were in full flourish among the middle English class since the 17th century. They were very conservative enough to avoid the direct references to sex, God, death, excretory functions and the like, while the aristocracy served as an inventive force creating the new language. It was the middle class Victorians in the 19lh century who amplified the euphemistic traditions both in England and in America. Polite Victorians would not refer to legs but to 'Limbs'. The Victorian lexicon 'frillies', 'unmentionables', 'inexpressibles' reflect the shock that the general populace felt at encountering subjects that had been considered private. It was in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that British euphemisms were developing abroad as well as at home. Although Americans would coin euphemisms with the local color of their new lands and lives, the patterns of formation would follow those of the English middle class.

American euphemisms reflected the desires of them for both piety and gentility. Puritans were well known for their concern with language, enacting laws against profanity. As their status was enhanced, they increased their powerful influence that led not only to genteelizing but also to sentimentalizing the language. This sentimental impulse generated a large lexicon of euphemisms for both love and death. In modern society, euphemism is used in all kinds of areas, and it can be divided into a lot of types, such as occupation, disease, death, sex. crime, politics and so on.

Historical linguistics has revealed traces of taboo deformations in many languages. Several are known to have occurred in Indo-European languages, including the original Proto-Indo-European words for bear (*rtkos), wolf (*wlk^wos), and deer (originally, hart; the deformation likely occurred to avoid confusion with heart). In different Indo-European languages, each of these words has a difficult etymology because of taboo deformations — a euphemism was substituted for the original, which no longer occurs in the language. An example is the Slavic root for bear — *medu-ed-, which means "honey eater". One example in English is "donkey" replacing the old Indo-European-derived word "ass". The word "dandelion" (lit., tooth of lion, referring to the shape of the leaves) is another example, being a substitute for pissenlit, meaning "wet the bed", a possible reference to the fact that dandelion was used as a diuretic.

In some languages of the Pacific, using the name of a deceased chief is taboo. Among indigenous Australians, it is forbidden to use the name, image, or audio-visual recording of the deceased, so that the Australian Broadcasting Corporation now publishes a warning to indigenous Australians when using names, images or audio-visual recordings of people who have died.

Since people are often named after everyday things, this leads to the swift development of euphemisms. These languages have a very high rate of vocabulary change.

In a similar manner, classical Chinese texts were expected to avoid using characters contained within the name of the currently ruling emperor as a sign of respect. In these instances, the relevant ideographs were replaced by synonyms. While this practice creates an additional wrinkle for anyone attempting to read or translate texts from the classical period, it does provide a fairly accurate means of dating the documents under consideration.

The common names of illicit drugs, and the plants used to obtain them, often undergo a process similar to taboo deformation, because new terms are devised in order to discuss them secretly in the presence of others. This process often occurs in English (e.g. speed or crank for meth). It occurs even more in Spanish, e.g. the deformation of names for cannabis: mota (lit., "something which moves" on the black market), replacing grifa (lit., "something coarse to the touch"), replacing marihuana (a female personal name, María Juana), replacing cañamo (the original Spanish name for the plant, derived from the Latin genus name Cannabis). All four of these names are still used in various parts of the Hispanophone world, although cañamo ironically has the least underworld connotation, and is often used to describe industrial hemp, or legitimate medically-prescribed cannabis.

So, in this part of the work we have shown different views on euphemisms which demonstrates attitudes of various scholars towards the phenomenon.