Child Psychology and Psychiatry


DEVELOPMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS



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066 Child Psychology and Psychiatry

DEVELOPMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
We now know that depressed, anxious or conduct-
problem-related cognitions are evident at an
early age. In a study of 5-year-olds, Murray and
colleagues found that higher rates of negative
cognitions, defined as ‘spontaneous’ expressions
of hopelessness or low self-worth during an exper-
imentally manipulated card game with a friend,
were observed in children whose mothers were, or
had been, depressed [8]. Significantly, differences
between the children of depressed and non-
depressed mothers were apparent only when the
children were losing. Evidence that cognitive dis-
tortions do not operate in a trait-like manner, even
in 5-year-olds, is an important clinical and devel-
opmental lesson. Other studies also suggest that
cognitive biases or distorted ‘filters’ exist in young
children and may be learned from parent-child
interactions. A study of 2–6
1
2
-year-olds found
that insecurely attached children showed poorer
understanding of negative emotions compared
with securely attached children; in other words,
they had more difficulty explaining or making
sense of negative emotions [9]. Findings from these
and many other studies are valuable not only for
what they say about the phenomena, but also for
the practical lessons they yield for assessing young
children. Greater integration of these methods in
clinical settings is feasible and a valuable next step
for advancing clinical assessment and treatment
monitoring (Box 42.3). Demonstrating that young
children with elevated behavioural/emotional
symptoms exhibit cognitive distortions does
not mean that these cognitive processes are
causally linked with disorder; neither does it
necessarily imply that altering these cognitions
will produce positive behavioural change. Indeed,
it is somewhat surprising that little is known about
the developmental constraints around CBT-based
treatments, and clinical research has not yet
demonstrated that a child’s developmental stage
predicts treatment outcome. This may be because
the predictors so far considered (e.g. age) are weak
indicators of the cognitive and social processes
that are required for successful CBT. However,
the theory and implementation of CBT has not
been especially developmentally informed. So,
for example, the traditional CBT model is not
explicit about why the approach might work
with a 12-year-old but not with a 5-year-old. If
there is a general impression, it is that CBT is
an effective treatment for depression and anxiety
in children aged around 8 years, with both short-
and long-term gains. In any event, it is clear that
CBT may be very effective. It is worth noting
that Kendall and Southam-Gerow found that
individual CBT was highly effective in treating
children/adolescents with anxiety disorders, and
that approximately 90% were diagnosis-free more
than 3 years after treatment ended [10].

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