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CONSONANTS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Content
Introduction………………………………………………………………………..2-3
CHAPTER ONE. GENERAL THEORIES AND VIEWS ABOUT
CONSONANTS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
1.1. Several definitions of consonants…………………………………………..…4-6
1.2. The importance of consonants in English………………………………….....6-7
1.3. Difference between consonants and vowels………………………………....7-12
CHAPTER TWO. THE CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH CONSONANTS
2.1. Manners of English consonants ………………………………………...…..13-19
2.2. Positions of English consonants………………………………………...…..20-23
2.3. Consonant changes in English………………………………………………23-25
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….26-27
Used Literature ..........................................................................................................28
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Introduction
All the letters in the alphabet are either consonants or vowels. A consonant is a
speech sound in which the air is at least partly blocked, and any letter which
represents this. Consonants may come singly (by themselves) or in clusters (two or
more together), but must be connected to a vowel to form a syllable.
Notice that the consonant and vowel notation does not match the letters of English
spelling in a one-to-one relationship, but rather individual sounds.
Consonants have
friction when they are spoken, mostly using the position of the tongue against the
lips, teeth and roof of the mouth. b and p are plosives, using the lips to produce a tiny
sharp sound. Phonetics texts give more details, with diagrams. Consonants may be
voiced or unvoiced. The th in the is voiced, but in breath is not.
There are 21 consonant letters in English, for 24 consonant sounds in most English
accents. Because of the history of the English language, there is no neat one-to-one
relationship between letter and sound. th and ch each stand for a single sound, and x
in fox stands for two sounds. All these letters are consonants: B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K,
L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, X, (sometimes Y), and Z. "Y" is often used as a
consonant, but it is sometimes used as a vowel. For example, in the word yellow, y is
a consonant. But in the word happy, y is a vowel.
The rest of the letters of the alphabet are called vowels. Vowels are underdone, for
there are about 20 vowel sounds in most English accents. The vowels are: A, E, I, O,
U (and sometimes Y)
A consonant is a speech sound that's not a vowel. The sound of a consonant is
produced by a partial or complete obstruction of the airstream by a constriction of the
speech organs. In writing, a consonant is any letter of the alphabet except A, E, I, O,
U, and sometimes Y. The 24 consonant sounds in English,are some voiced (made by
a vibration of the vocal cords) and some voiceless (no vibration).
When spoken vowels have no obstruction in the mouth, as opposed to consonants,
which do. In his book "Letter Perfect," the author David Sacks described the
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difference between speaking consonants and vowels this way: "Whereas vowels are
pronounced from the vocal cords with minimal shaping of expelled breath, consonant
sounds are created through obstruction or channeling of the breath by the lips, teeth,
tongue, throat, or nasal passage.... Some consonants, like B, involve the vocal cords;
others don't. Some, like R or W, flow the breath in a way that steers them relatively
close to being vowels."
When consonants and vowels are put together, they form syllables, which are the
basic units of pronunciation. Syllables, in turn, are the foundation of words in English
grammar. Phonetically, however, consonants are much more variable.
Consonants are sounds in which the air stream meets some obstacles in the mouth on
its way up from the lungs, as we learned earlier. Most consonants are not as smooth-
sounding as vowels; they pop, hiss, snap, or hum. The table below shows the
phonemic symbols for American English consonants. There are alternate symbols for
a few of these sounds, but overall, the consonant symbols are very consistent across
different versions of the phonemic alphabet, and they are basically the same for
American English and British English.
On the below, there is full and brief information about the consonants of English
language, its definition, importance of them in English, manners and position of
consonants.
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CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL THEORIES AND VIEWS ABOUT CONSONANTS IN ENGLISH
LANGUAGE
1.1. Several definitions of consonants
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with
complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are [p], pronounced with the
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lips; [t], pronounced with the front of the tongue; [k], pronounced with the back of
the tongue; [h], pronounced in the throat; [f] and [s], pronounced by forcing air
through a narrow channel (fricatives); and [m] and [n], which have air flowing
through the nose (nasals). Contrasting with consonants are vowels.
Since the number of possible sounds in all of the world's languages is much greater
than the number of letters in any one alphabet, linguists have devised systems such as
the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to assign a unique and unambiguous
symbol to each attested consonant. In fact, the English alphabet has fewer consonant
letters than English has consonant sounds, so digraphs like "ch", "sh", "th", and "zh"
are used to extend the alphabet, and some letters and digraphs represent more than
one consonant. For example, the sound spelled "th" in "this" is a different consonant
from the "th" sound in "thin". (In the IPA, they are transcribed [ð] and [θ],
respectively.)
The word consonant comes from Latin oblique stem cōnsonant-, from cōnsonāns
(littera) "sounding-together (letter)", a calque of Greek σύμφωνον sýmphōnon (plural
sýmphōna).[2][3]
Dionysius Thrax calls consonants sýmphōna "pronounced with" because they can
only be pronounced with a vowel.[a] He divides them into two subcategories:
1
Борисова, Л.В. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка : учебное пособие для
ин-тов и фак-тов иностр. яз. / Л.В. Борисова, А.А. Метлюк. – Минск: Вышэйшая
школа, 1980. – 144 с.
2. Бурая, Е.А. Фонетика современного английского языка. Теоретический курс: учебник
для студ. лингв. вузов и фак. / Е.А. Бурая, И.Е. Галочкина, Т.И. Шевченко. – 3-е изд.,
стер. – Москва: Издательский центр «Академия», 2009. – 272 с.
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hēmíphōna, semivowels ("half-pronounced"),[5] which correspond to continuants,
not semivowels,[b] and áphōna, mute or silent consonants ("unvoiced"),[6] which
correspond to stops, not voiceless consonants.[c]
This description does not apply to some human languages, such as the Salishan
languages, in which stops sometimes occur without vowels (see Nuxálk), and the
modern conception of consonant does not require co-occurrence with vowels.
The word consonant is also used to refer to a letter of an alphabet that denotes a
consonant sound. The 21 consonant letters in the English alphabet are B, C, D, F, G,
H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, X, Z, and usually W and Y. The letter Y stands for
the consonant /j/ in yoke, the vowel /ɪ/ in myth, the vowel /i/ in funny, and the
diphthong /aɪ/ in my. W always represents a consonant except in combination with a
vowel letter, as in growth, raw, and how, and in a few loanwords from Welsh, like
crwth or cwm. In some other languages, such as Finnish, you only represents a vowel
sound.
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Consonants and vowels correspond to distinct parts of a syllable: The most
sonorous part of the syllable (that is, the part that's easiest to sing), called the syllabic
peak or nucleus, is typically a vowel, while the less sonorous margins (called the
onset and coda) are typically consonants. Such syllables may be abbreviated CV, V,
and CVC, where C stands for consonant and V stands for vowel. This can be argued
to be the only pattern found in most of the world's languages, and perhaps the
primary pattern in all of them. However, the distinction between consonant and
vowel is not always clear cut: there are syllabic consonants and non-syllabic vowels
in many of the world's languages.
One blurry area is in segments variously called semivowels, semiconsonants, or
glides. On one side, there are vowel-like segments that are not in themselves syllabic,
2
Васильев, В.А. Фонетика английского языка. Теоретический курс: учебник для ин-тов
и фак-тов иностр. яз. / В.А. Васильев. – Москва: Высшая школа, 1970. – 322 с.
4. Карневская, Е.Б. Практическая фонетика английского языка на продвинутом этапе
обучения: учебник / Е.Б. Карневская, Е.А. Мисуно, Л.Д. Раковская; под общ. ред. Е.Б.
Карневской. – 3-е изд., перераб. – Минск: Аверсэв, 2007. – 400 с.
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but form diphthongs as part of the syllable nucleus, as the i in English boil [ˈb ɪ
l]. On
the other, there are approximants that behave like consonants in forming onsets, but
are articulated very much like vowels, as the y in English yes [ˈjɛs]. Some
phonologists model these as both being the underlying vowel i , so that the English
word bit would phonemically be bit , beet would be bii t , and yield would be
phonemically i ii ld . Likewise, foot would be fut , food would be fuu d , wood would
be u ud , and wooed would be u uu d . However, there is a (perhaps allophonic)
difference in articulation between these segments, with the [j] in [ˈjɛs] yes and [ˈjiʲld]
yield and the [w] of [ˈwuʷd] wooed having more constriction and a more definite
place of articulation than the [ɪ] in [ˈb ɪ
l] boil or [ˈbɪt] bit or the [ʊ] of [ˈfʊt] foot.
1.2. The importance of consonants in English
All languages have both vowels and consonants, and the difference between them
is the degree of constriction of the air from the lungs that travels up the trachea into
the oral or nasal cavity. Vowels are produced when the air is gently shaped by the
position of the lips, tongue, or soft palate; consonants are produced when one
anatomical structure (lips, tongue, teeth, hard and soft palates, pharynx, larynx,
glottis, etc.) makes some sort of contact with another and thus impedes the flow of
air. Because the structures involved in consonants are so great in number, more
consonants than vowels are possible, providing multiple combinations of vowels and
consonants for the purpose of producing spoken words. Over 70 types of sounds are
used for human speech, though probably no languages use all of them.
Consonant sounds make speech clear, crisp and intelligible, meaning they make
your speech easier to understand. Consonants are easier to learn than vowels. There is
usually only one way to pronounce each consonant sound. Once you learn to position
your teeth, tongue and lips for a consonant sound, you can insert it into any word and
be fairly accurate. Vowels, on the other hand, are more complicated. In English there
is not a single standard for pronouncing each vowel. The ―a‖ letter can be pronounced
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as many as 6 different ways. That makes learning vowel pronunciation very
challenging.
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Vowels can also vary in English pronunciation and still be acceptable. Each region
of the US pronounces the vowels a little differently. So, a slight mispronunciation of
a vowel from non-natives is not much of a problem. Our ears are willing to adjust to
hearing the ―i‖ in ‗him‖ mispronounced as an ―e‖ like ‗heem.‖ While it is not correct
Standard American pronunciation, it does not bother us much.
For all these reasons, the most valuable use of your practice time for reducing an
accent is to focus on pronouncing consonant sounds.
Consonants and vowels are two different qualities of sounds that are found almost in
all languages of the world.
Consonants are defined as the sounds articulated by temporary obstruction in the
air stream which passes through the mouth. The obstruction made by the articulators
may be `total‘, `intermittent‘, `partial‘, or may merely constitute a narrowing
sufficient to cause friction. In the articulation of consonants almost all articualtors are
involved. Vowels on the other hand are the sounds that are produced without any
obstruction in the air passage. Among all articulators, only the tongue is involved in
their production. All vowel sounds are voiced and all of them are oral sounds as
during the production of them the soft palate is raised and hence the nasal cavity is
completely blocked.
Another important distinction is, that consonants often appear as the marginal
elements in syllables. They seldom form the nucleus, or centre, of the syllable except
in some cases. Usually there will be a vowel at the center or nucleus of a syllable.
You will learn more about this in the rubric on Syllables and Syllable Structure
1.3. Difference between consonants and vowels
3
Бурая, Е.А. Фонетика современного английского языка. Теоретический курс: учебник
для студ. лингв. вузов и фак. / Е.А. Бурая, И.Е. Галочкина, Т.И. Шевченко. – 3-е изд.,
стер. – Москва: Издательский центр «Академия», 2009. – 272 с.
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When it comes to describing and classifying consonants and vowels show apparent
distinction. Consonants are identified or classified in terms of voicing, place of
articulation, and manner of articulation. Since there is no obstruction of the airstream
in the production of vowel sounds, and since all vowel sounds are voiced and oral, we
cannot describe vowels in terms of their place of articulation, but are left with the
manner, in which they are produced.
Consonants are defined as the sounds articulated by temporary obstruction in the
air stream which passes through the mouth. The obstruction made by the articulators
may be `total', `intermittent', `partial', or may merely constitute a narrowing sufficient
to cause friction. In the articulation of consonants almost all articualtors are involved.
Especially the position of the soft palate causes the division of consonants into `oral
consonants' and `nasal consonants'. when the soft palate is raised, `oral consonants'
are produced; the soft palate is lowered, `nasal consonants' are produced. In English
/m/, /n/, and / /are nasal consonants and rest of all are oral consonants. The function
of vocal cords also causes the division of consonants as `voiceless' and `voiced'.
When vocal cords are kept apart, voiceless consonants as /p, t, k, c, f, 0, s, s, h/ are
produced whereas their vibrations produce voiced consonants as /b, d, g, j, v, ,z, z/.
But vowels are the sounds that are produced with an approximation without any
obstruction in the air passage. Among all articulators, only tongue is prominent in
their production. All vowel sounds are voiced and all of them are `oral' as during the
production of them the soft palate is raised and hence the nasal cavity is completely
blocked. The examples of the vowels are /i, I, e, , a , , , u, U, , o, /. Consonants in
phonetics are referred to as `contoids' which often appear as the marginal elements in
the `syllable'. They seldom form nucleus of the syllable except some case. The
consonants `n' and `l' in the second syllable of the words `button' and `apple' form
nucleus. But vowels referred to as `vocoids' in phonetics always form the nucleus of
the syllable as in `bill', `pill', `mill', `heat', etc. Even in their manner of classification,
consonants and vowels show apparent distinction. Consonants are identified or
classified in terms of `voicing', `place of articulation', and `manner of articulation',
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whereas vowels in terms of the `height of tongue', `part of tongue', which is raised or
lowered, and `lip rounding'. After all consonants are auditory impressions and they
are twenty five in number whereas vowels are articulatory impressions and are only
twelve in number.
Articulatory differences between consonants and vowels:
Physiological Distinction
In general, consonants can be said to have a greater degree of constriction than
vowels. This is obviously the case for oral and nasal stops, fricatives and affricates.
The case for approximants is not so clear-cut as the semi-vowels /j/ and /w/ are very
often indistinguishable from vowels in terms of their constriction.
Acoustic Distinction
In general, consonants can be said to be less prominent than vowels. This is usually
manifested by vowels being more intense than the consonants that surround them.
Sometimes, certain consonants can have a greater total intensity than adjacent vowels
but vowels are almost always more intense at low frequencies than adjacent
consonants.
Phonological Distinction
Syllables usually consist of a vowel surrounded of consonants. A single vowel
forms the prominent nucleus of each syllable. There is only one peak of prominence
per syllable and this is nearly always a vowel. The consonants form the less
prominent valleys between the vowel peaks. This tidy picture is disturbed by the
existence of syllabic consonants. Syllabic consonants form the nucleus of a syllable
that does not contain a vowel. In English, syllabic consonants occur when an
approximant or a nasal stop follows a homorganic (same place of articulation) oral
stop (or occasionally a fricative) in words such as "bottle" /b tl
or "button" /bʌtn .
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4
Соколова, М.А. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка / М.А. Соколова, И. С.
Тихонова, Р.М. Тихонова, Е.Л. Фрейдина. – Дубна: Феникс+, 2010. – 192 с.
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The semi-vowels in English play the same phonological role as the other
consonants even though they are vowel-like in many ways. The semi-vowels are
found in syllable positions where stops, fricatives, etc. are found (eg. "pay", "may",
and "say" versus "way").
All sounds depend on manipulation of an air stream either leaving or entering the
body. Different sounds are produced by the shape and size of the chamber the air is
passing through (mouth and nose) and whether there is any intrusion into the air
stream.
Vowels include no or little intrusion into the air stream, their acoustics are
determined entirely by the size and shape of the chamber(s) of resonance and the
action/inaction of the vocal cords. (It must be noted at this point that the position of
the vocal cords in the larynx can also have an effect on vowel sounds. If the cords
are relaxed, the air passes freely through, and there is no effect on sound. If, on the
other hand, the cords are tense, the passing air causes them to vibrate, and that does
affect the sound. This is the only ―intrusion‖ into the air stream which is present in
the articulation of a vowel.) The size and shape of the chamber can be adjusted by the
position of the tongue and the lips: some vowel sounds are produced by an elevated
tongue (and part of the tongue elevated can be significant also, defining the
difference between ―front,‖ ‗mid,‖ and ―back‖ vowels), while others are produced
with the tongue at varying lower levels, or with the root of the tongue advanced or
retracted. The shape of the aperture at exit (the lips) also affects the sound made by
the exiting air stream. If part or all of the air stream is shunted into the nasal cavity
and out of the nostrils, the sound is also altered as resonance occurs in the sinuses.
Consonants, by comparison, owe almost all of their sound to some sort of
obstruction or channeling of the passing air. The air can be stopped entirely by
closing the lips or using the tongue to block and stop the progress of the air or by
causing it to vibrate. Or the moving air may be channelized by changing the shape of
the tongue, so that it flows along a narrow channel. The vocal chords may also
participate in the production of a consonant sound.
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Now, the easiest way to get your friend to comprehend the basic difference
between vowels and consonants is to contrast the most extreme of each of these.
Have him her articulate ―ah,‖ as a doctor does when he wants to look at the far back
of the throat. This position is the most open one possible, the chamber is maximally
open for the articulation of the sound ―ah.‖ This is how we articulate the vowel
a.Now ask him /her to pronounce a d, a t, or an n. Ask him to visualize where the
tongue is—it will be either pressed against the back of the front teeth, or against the
gum below the front teeth. These sounds are called ―stops‖ because the air stream is
completely stopped and then released. You could work through many other
consonant sounds, e.g. p, b, m, demonstrating again the extreme manipulation of the
air stream.
Basically, a vowel is a sound that is made with the mouth and throat not closing at
any point. In contrast, a consonant is a sound that is made with the air stopping once
or more during the vocalization. That means that at some point, the sound is stopped
by your teeth, tongue, lips, or constriction of the vocal cords.
The difference explains why ―y‖ is only ―sometimes‖ a vowel. Depending on
which word ―y‖ is being used in, it can represent different sounds. In words like
―myth‖ or ―hymn,‖ the letter takes on a sound like a short ―i‖ and the mouth and
throat don‘t close when the sound is made. However, in words like ―beyond,‖ it acts
as a bridge between the ―e‖ and the ―o,‖ and there is some partial closure, making ―y‖
a consonant.
Another forgotten letter that has the same qualities as ―y‖ is ―w.‖ While ―w‖ is almost
always a consonant, it is considered a vowel at the end of words like ―wow‖ or
―how.‖ You can see for yourself when saying these words that your mouth doesn‘t
fully close while pronouncing the letter.
There are, of course, other differences between vowels and consonants. For
instance, in English you can have vowels that are entire words, such as ―a‖ or ―I.‖
You won‘t see a consonant that is a word by itself, however. Words in English need
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vowels to break up the sounds that consonants make. So, while every word has to
have a vowel, not every word has to have a consonant.
There are strings of consonants that are sometimes written like full words, like
―hmm.‖ However, these are just sounds rather than actual words. You will also find
that most words in English won‘t have more than three consonants in a row, because
otherwise it gets to be too difficult for English-speakers to say it. There are
exceptions, of course—take the word ―strengths‖ for example, which has a string of
five consonants (though it only has three consonant sounds in a row: ng, th, and s). In
other languages, like Polish, long strings of consonants are more common.
Of course, there are also sounds made by consonants that can be repeated over and
over without a vowel sound. If you were to repeat ―z‖ over and over, like the sound
of a buzzing bee, you would find that your mouth remains slightly open and the
sound is seemingly unobstructed—so shouldn‘t it fall under the ―vowel‖ category?
The letter ―z,‖ along with the letter ―s,‖ actually fall under a subcategory of
consonants called ―fricatives.‖ Fricatives are sounds you make by pushing air through
a small gap in your teeth.
As you can see, the differences between vowels and consonants are more complex
than you were probably taught in elementary school. It‘s less about the letters and
more about how your mouth moves when you‘re saying them.
5
Шевченко, Т.И. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка: учебник / Т.И.
Шевченко. – 2-е изд. стер. – Москва: Высшая школа, 2009. – 191 с.
8. Roach, P. English Phonetics and Phonology. A Practical Course / P. Roach. – 4th ed. –
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. – 231 p.
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