Brief contents of the course

Glossary of linguistic terms

1. 
   secondary part of the sentence – второстепенные члены предложения
   
2. 
   direct object – прямое дополнение
   
3. 
   indirect object – косвенное дополнение
   
4. 
   instrumental – дополнение инструмента
   
5. 
   locative – дополнение места
   
6. 
   degree of property – степень качества
   
7. 
   condition – условное
   
8. 
   accompanying circumstances – сопутствующих обстоятельств
   
9. 
   subsequent events – последующих событий
   

Additional reading:

1. 
   стр. 211-231
   

2. стр. 196-207
3. –
4. –
5.стр. 320-327

Practical tasks:

9. 
   Analyze the semantic structure of the following sentences, defining the semantic roles (deep cases) of the subject and the object:
   

This woman is easy to talk to.
They don’t know any better life.

The best thing to do would be to ask his wife.

XXXXII. THE APPOSITION, DIRECT ADDRESS, PARENTHESES,

AND INSERTIONS. LOOSE PARTS

THE APPOSITION(приложение)
It has been often regarded as a special kind of attribute, and sometimes as a secondary part of a sentence distinct from an attribute.
By apposition we mean a word or phrase referring to a part of the sentence expressed by a noun, and giving some other designation to the person or thing named by that noun. If the noun denotes a person, the apposition will often be a word or phrase naming the title, or profession, or social position of the person, etc., as the word Captain in the sentence, For a moment, Melanie thought how nice Captain Butler was. Concerning the apposition the same question may arise as concerning the attribute, namely, whether it is not part of a phrase rather than of a sentence, and arguments similar to those applied to the attribute may be put forward here.
As to the relation between an apposition and an attribute, there seems to be no convincing reason for considering the apposition a special kind of attribute. An apposition appears to have distinctive features strong enough to establish it as a separate secondary part: it is always expressed either by a noun, or by a phrase centred around a noun, and characterises the person or thing in a way different from that of an attribute. This will become clear if we compare the phrases stone wall and President Roosevelt: the relations between their components are entirely different.
THE DIRECT ADDRESS
There are some elements of the sentence which are neither its main parts, nor any of the usual secondary ones.
These are the direct address and the parenthesis.
The direct address and the parenthesis are often said to be outside the sentence, in the sense that they are not an integral part of its structure but are, as it were, added to it "from the outside". This view, however, seems hardly justified and it is based on a rather too narrow view of the structure of a sentence. If we were to take the term "outside the sentence" at its face value, we should have to omit these elements, for example, when asked to read a sentence aloud. This is never done, and should not be done. By "structure of the sentence" we should mean the whole of a sentence, with all the elements which it may contain, with their varying degrees of organic unity. In this sense, then, the direct address is no less a part of the sentence than any other word or phrase.
The direct address is a name or designation of the person or persons (or, occasionally, thing or things) to whom the speech or writing is addressed. The purpose may be different in different circumstances, but this does not alter the fact that it is a direct address in all cases.
The direct address may consist of one word or of a phrase. If it is one word, this may be the person's name, or profession, or title, or it may denote a relationship between the person addressed and the speaker. If it is a phrase, this may again be any of the types just mentioned, or it may be some emotional address, whether friendly, as my dear fellow, or hostile, as you swine, you old rascal, etc. In the latter case, it is quite clear that the speaker's purpose in using a direct address is to express his attitude towards the person spoken to, whether it be friendly or otherwise. A few examples from modern fiction will do well to illustrate the various possibilities in the structure and function of the direct address. Quite a different emotional note is struck in the following sentence: Jennie, darling, you're looking very pretty," he said. The name Jennie as such is neutral in tone, but the second part of the direct address, darling, of course expresses the speaker's emotional attitude toward the person addressed.
The emotional range of the words and phrases used in direct address can of course be very wide indeed
PARENTHESES AND INSERTIONS
Besides the direct address, there are other syntactical elements which are usually said to be outside the sentence. To illustrate this, we will give two extreme examples from modern texts: (1) Of course Mrs Elsing was simply forced to it... (2) . . .he told Nelly that an old friend of his had visited him just as he was about to leave, and for politeness' sake — mere politeness, that fault in human intercourse — he had brought her with him. It will be readily seen that there is a great difference between the additional element in the two sentences: in (1) the phrase of course expresses the speaker's attitude towards the thought expressed in the sentence, whereas in (2) the additional element is of a different kind: it carries some extra information about something mentioned in the sentence.
A parenthesis should be defined as follows: words and phrases which have no syntactical ties with the sentence, and express the speaker's attitude towards what he says, a general assessment of the statement, or an indication of its sources, its connection with other statements, or with a wider context in speech.
In a vast majority of cases, a parenthesis refers to the sentence or clause as a whole. Sometimes, however, it refers only to a secondary part of the sentence. This may be seen, for example, in the following sentences: I was deeply though doubtless not disinterestedly anxious for more news of the old lady. Here the parenthesis doubtless refers only to the connection between not disinterestedly and anxious. Miss Lavish he believed he understood, but Miss Bartlett might reveal unknown depths of strangeness, though not, perhaps, of meaning. The parenthesis perhaps refers only to the connection between not of meaning and depths.
As to insertions, they are described as various additional statements inserted in the sentence. The main carcass of the sentence may be, as it were, interrupted by additional remarks, clarifications, corrections, extra information about something, or remarks containing comparison or contrasting something with what is expressed in the sentence, etc.
Let us, for instance, compare the two following sentences, the first of which has an adverbial modifier at the beginning, while the second begins with a parenthesis: Somehow it would come out all right when the war was over. Perhaps you know best about that, but I should say.
There is a clear difference between the two, yet at the same time there is something they have in common.
An interjection, or a phrase equivalent to an interjection, can also be considered a kind of parenthesis (unless, of course, it is a sentence in itself). Thus, the interjection oh in the following sentence: Oh, but she depended entirely on her voice! can be called a parenthesis, and so can the phrase oh dear in the sentence Oh dear, I hope I shall be a success!
Now let us take a sentence with an insertion: And the thought that, after all, he had not really killed her. No, no. Thank God for that. He had not. And yet (stepping up on the near-by bank and shaking the water from his clothes) had he? Here things are quite different. The insertion contains some information about Clyde's movements as he was brooding in the way expressed by the main body of the sentence.
The very fact that an insertion can only come in the middle of a sentence, interrupting its course, while a parenthesis can also be at the beginning or at the end of a sentence, is an important point of grammatical difference between the two.