Branches of linguistics. Synchronic vs diachronic approaches to the language study. Lexicology – ‘the science of the word’

Metaphor is the transference of name based on the association of similarity between two referents and thus is actually a hidden comparison. Models of metaphorical transference:
-similarity of shape, e.g. the head of a cabbage, the nose of a plane etc;
- similarity of colour, e.g. orange for colour and fruit, black despair etc.;
-similarity of function, e.g. the wing of a plane, the hand of a clock etc.;
-similarity of age, e.g. a green man etc.;
-similarity of position, e.g. the leg of the table, the foot of a hill etc.;
-similarity of behaviour or qualities of animals, e.g. a bookworm, a pig, a rat etc.;
-similarity in temperature, e.g. cold reason, warm heart etc.;
-transition of proper names into common nouns, e.g. a Rockefeller, a Cinderella, a Judas, a Don Juan, an Adonis etc.
Metonymy is the transference of name based on the association of contiguity (суміжність). Models of metonymical transference:
-the part the whole (synecdoche), e.g. to be all ears;
-the place people occupying it, e.g. The White House, The Pentagon;
-the material the object made from it, e.g. a glass, an iron;
-the container the thing contained, e.g. the kettle is boiling;
-a geographical name a common noun, e.g. madeira, bourbon, champagne, sardine, labrador;
-the instrument the agent, e.g. the best pens of the day;
-the sign the thing signified, e.g. gray hair ‘old age’;
-the symbol the thing symbolised, e.g. the crown ‘the monarchy’.
25. Traditional lexicological groupings of words: thematic and ideographic groups, lexicosemantic groups, semantic fields.
A word-family is a set of words that all share a common root, e.g. graceful, ungraceful, gracefulness, to disgrace, disgracefully, disgraceful, disgrace, disgracefulness, gracelessly, graceless etc.