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Individual maintenance roles
Goal-setting
Feedback
Recognition
Counselling
Training
Task roles
Initiating
Information-seeking
Diagnosing
Opinion-seeking
Evaluating
Decision-making
Group maintenance roles
Encouraging
Peace-keeping
Clarifying
Standard-seeking
Total
situation
Task
needs
Individual
needs
Group
needs
(Adair) 
Adair argued that the common perception of leadership as 'decision-making' was inadequate to describe 
the range of action required by this complex situation. He developed a scheme of leadership training 
based on precept and practice in each of eight leadership 'activities' which are applied to task, team and 
individual: hence, the '
action-centred leadership
' model. 

Defining the task 

Evaluating 

Planning 

Motivating 

Briefing 

Organising 

Controlling 

Setting 
an 
example 
5.3.3 Bennis: the distinction between management and leadership 
Warren Bennis puts forward some specific differences between the role of the manager and the role of 
the leader. 
(a) 
The manager
administers and maintains, by focusing on systems and controls and the short 
term. 
(b) 
The leader
innovates, focuses on people and inspires trust, and holds a long-term view. 
As a further distinction, Bennis distinguishes between the manager as someone who 
'does things right'
and the leader who 
'does the right thing'
. 
Bennis studied leadership by examining leaders of every description in the hope of finding some 
common characteristics and concluded that there is no one right way to lead, but it does set out 
common competencies displayed by leaders. Bennis (1985) calls them: 
(a) The