Bioremediation of Agricultural Soils Polluted with Pesticides: a review

particularly fish products [
63
]. The OCs are accumulated in fish muscle, and then, they
become bioaccessible to humans during gastrointestinal digestion.
Significant concentrations of OCs were found on dust particles. This type of exposition
causes cytotoxic effects on human skin, leading to the development of carcinoma [
64
].
3.2.2. Organophosphates
The organophosphates (OPs) are acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, which lead to having
high levels of acetylcholine. The consequence is damage to several organs such as periph-
eral and central nervous systems, muscles, liver, pancreas, and brain. Most of them belong
to the first classes (Ia, Ib, and II) of the WHO classification (Figure
6
).

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Figure 6. 
LD
50 
(mg·kg
−
1
) of organophosphates for rat.
High doses of organophosphate cause acute intoxication, which leads to pancreatitis. 
This is due to the AChE-inhibition-induced cholinergic overstimulation, which leads to 
increased intraductal pressure and excess pancreatic enzyme secretion [65]. 
In the long term, one of the effects of organophosphate poisoning is a seizure disor-
der. Chuang et al. [66] have shown that the risk of seizure development is greater in pa-
tients with organophosphate poisoning than in healthy individuals. 
3.2.3. Carbamates 
The toxicity of several carbamates is such as to make them moderately and slightly 
hazardous, in some cases unhazardous, as can be seen from the LD
50
values shown in 
Figure 7. 
Figure 7. 
LD
50 
(mg
·
kg
−
1
) of carbamates for rat. 
The carbamates act as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and endocrine disruptors. Ex-
posure to carbamates causes respiratory diseases. 
Toxicological experiments have shown that prenatal and postnatal exposure to car-
bamates can affect fetal and child development, causing damage to the hippocampus 
[67,68]. 
Figure 6.
LD
50
(mg
·
kg
−
1
) of organophosphates for rat.
High doses of organophosphate cause acute intoxication, which leads to pancreatitis.
This is due to the AChE-inhibition-induced cholinergic overstimulation, which leads to
increased intraductal pressure and excess pancreatic enzyme secretion [
65
].
In the long term, one of the effects of organophosphate poisoning is a seizure disorder.
Chuang et al. [
66
] have shown that the risk of seizure development is greater in patients
with organophosphate poisoning than in healthy individuals.
3.2.3. Carbamates
The toxicity of several carbamates is such as to make them moderately and slightly
hazardous, in some cases unhazardous, as can be seen from the LD
50
values shown in
Figure
7
.
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