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Quotation markers as intertextual codes in electoral
propaganda
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Text and Talk · July 2009
DOI: 10.1515/TEXT.2009.024
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Quotation markers as intertextual codes in
electoral propaganda*
PNINA SHUKRUN-NAGAR
Abstract
This article explores the intertextual nature (as defined by Kristeva) of lin-
guistic markers used to denote quotations (quotation markers) in the 1999
Israeli televised electoral campaign. Three kinds of quotation markers were
identified: source markers (references, qualifiers), describing the source;
speech markers (lexical, graphical), attesting to speech production; and
circumstance markers, describing the context (time, place, participants,
background) in which the quotation was produced. It was found that, in ad-
dition to their overt role as references to the quotation, quotation markers
also encode the ideological and argumentative value attributed by the par-
ties to the quotations and their sources. Source markers serve to a‰liate the
sources with the positively regarded ‘‘we’’ group, to exclude them, or to es-
tablish them as neutral; speech and circumstance markers serve to a‰liate
quotations with the positively regarded ideological text of the party, to ex-
clude them, or to mark them as neutral. Moreover, these three markers
serve to reinforce the reliability of quotations that fulfill a corroborative
role. These values are encoded by the mere presence of the markers, as
well as by such devices as variation in the frequency of the markers, their
content, emotive connotations, grammatical forms, and incorporation in re-
curring patterns.
Keywords:
intertextuality; electoral campaign; propaganda; covert per-
suasion; quotation markers.
1.
Introduction
In this article, I discuss the rhetorical functions of quotation markers, i.e.,
linguistic markers used to denote quotations. Three types of markers were
identified in the text studied here: source markers, relating to the identity
and qualities of the quotation source (such as: ‘‘Mayor of Jerusalem’’);
1860–7330/09/0029–0459
Text & Talk 29–4 (2009), pp. 459–480
Online 1860–7349
DOI 10.1515/TEXT.2009.024
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speech markers, indicating the production of the speech event (‘‘told,’’
‘‘says’’), and circumstance markers, describing the circumstances in which
the quotation was produced (‘‘this week on television’’). I will argue that
quotation markers are used as a significant means of persuasion in the
televised electoral campaign. They function as intertextual elements in
the primary sense of the term according to Kristeva (1984 [1974]): in ad-
dition to their obvious linguistic role—indicating the quoted pre-text—
they are also used as ideological and argumentative codes, transmitting
covert messages in reference to the quotation and to its source. This will
be shown in a corpus, comprising spoken and written Hebrew texts, of
the electoral broadcasts on Israeli television in 1999 on behalf of the two
major parties at the time: Likud and Israel Achat. The discussion is based
on an analysis of original examples, which are presented in semi-literal
translation into English.
2.
Theoretical background
The discussion is inspired by Julia Kristeva’s theory of intertextuality
(Kristeva 1984 [1974], 1986), which posits the permutation of semiotic
units to linguistic ones. Kristeva was influenced by Bakhtin (1981, 1986)
who views language as a dialogic system whereby meanings are the prod-
uct of interactions between signs, speakers, and contexts (historical, cul-
tural, social, ideological).
Accordingly, Kristeva refers to the linguistic text, primarily poetic, as a
meeting place between textual organization and external cultural units.
She argues that all the semiotic meanings, including psychological ones,
are encoded covertly in the linguistic sign, and therefore sees its polysemy
as semiotic polyvalence (Kristeva 1984 [1974]: 59–60, 1980: 36–37; see
also Allen 2000: 35–36; Roudiez 1980: 15)
The concept of intertextuality was often reduced, to Kristeva’s dismay,
to overt marking of transposition between lingual texts (Kristeva 1984
[1974]: 59; see also Allen 2000: 101; Pfister 1991: 210). However, many
researchers have remained faithful to Kristeva’s theory and demonstrated
this through varied links between concrete texts and discourse (Frow
1990; Ri¤aterre 1984) or concrete pre-texts (Genette 1997; Hatim and
Mason 1990).
In this paper, I apply Kristeva’s notion of intertextuality to my analysis
of three quotation markers found in the televised electoral campaign:
source markers and speech markers, whose linguistic roles have been dis-
cussed elsewhere, and circumstance markers. I will show that in rhetorical
discourse various meanings encoded in the quotation markers make them
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profoundly intertextual, i.e., they implicitly position the pre-text in rela-
tion to the text, both ideologically and argumentatively. For this purpose
I will discuss the meaning of the mere presence (as opposed to absence) of
the markers and the semiotic meanings inherent in the frequency of these
markers, their content, emotive connotations, intonation, grammatical
forms, incorporation in recurring patterns, etc. (Sections 6–8).
3.
The corpus
The analysis draws on the Israeli televised electoral campaign, broadcast
six days a week on national television between the dates 24 April 1999
and 14 May 1999. The examined texts relate to the two major Israeli po-
litical parties: Likud, then the ruling party, led by Benjamin Netanyahu
(prime minister from 1996 to 1999), and Israel Achat, the largest opposi-
tion party, led by Ehud Barak (prime minister from 1999 to 2001). Polit-
ically, the Likud was perceived as a moderate right-wing party, whereas
Israel Achat was considered a moderate left-wing party. Both parties
tended to quote each other, particularly their leaders.
The electoral campaign was planned by advertising companies in coop-
eration with the politicians appointed as the directors of the election
headquarters. Each broadcast lasts 30 minutes and generally consists of
approximately 10–15 textual units that are easily distinguishable by sub-
title naming the addressing party at the beginning and the end. Every
broadcast contains various segments on such topics as security, econom-
ics, social welfare, and education.
The texts discussed are in spoken and written Hebrew. The written lan-
guage was at times an exact transcription of speech (subtitles), and at
times just slogans or emphasized portions. In addition, both visual means
(photos, clips) and audio means (songs, music) are used.
A typical broadcast often includes a background narration and pro-
ceeds as follows: an announcer presents a claim in favor of the addressing
party or against its opponents. His oral presentation is accompanied by a
written version and relevant photos may be seen on the screen. The claim
is then reinforced by a member of the party, usually its leader, or a public
figure (economist, writer, security specialist). Simultaneously, subtitles,
slogans, and clips are shown on the screen. Most politicians appear sitting
behind a desk in their o‰ce, the national flag in the background, while
public figures are usually seen sitting in a television studio. In addition,
in order to reinforce the same claim, ordinary people are interviewed in
di¤erent settings: on the street, in the market, at a university campus, etc.
In the framework of the distinction between text and pre-text, I con-
sider all of the above as text, since they were created specifically for the
Quotation markers as intertextual codes
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televised campaign and are presented as part of it. The broadcasts also
include clips and previous recordings from other places such as parlia-
ment meetings, conferences, and political conventions. I consider these
segments as pre-texts, and the words of the speakers as quotations.
The article discusses a random sample of 20 broadcasts, during which
47 di¤erent propositions (abstract content units) were quoted from 19 dif-
ferent sources. In most cases the same proposition was quoted several
times in the same segment (in direct speech, indirect speech, recorded
speech, etc.). As already mentioned (Section 1), the texts were translated
verbatim into English. I will discuss all semantic, pragmatic, or other de-
viations from the original text.
4.
Description of the quotation markers
4.1.
Source markers
Source markers presenting the quotation’s source include references and
qualifiers (Halliday and Hasan 1976; Weizman 1998):
References indicating the source’s identity: full name, surname, name (of
parties, newspapers), and unique role (‘‘the Syrian Foreign Minister’’).
Qualifiers describing various characteristics of the source: residence, a‰li-
ation group (parties, population groups), and status (‘‘one of the leading
economists’’).
4.2.
Speech markers
Speech markers indicating the production of quotations include:
Lexical markers: nominals (‘‘a silly declaration’’), verbs (‘‘said’’), and pres-
ent participles (‘‘shout’’) from the semantic field of saying. In Hebrew the
present tense is conveyed by the present participle, a verbal adjective that
shares characteristics of both verbs and nouns. In electoral discourse the
distinction between the present participle and past tense verbs has signifi-
cant rhetorical importance (Sections 6–7).
Graphical elements: double quotation marks; colons. Naturally these
markers are only used when the quotation is written on the screen.
4.3.
Circumstance markers
Circumstance markers describing the context of the quotation include:
Temporal markers: dates; time frames (‘‘this week’’).
Locative markers regarding production or broadcast location.
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