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Advantages and disadvantages of the animal models v. in vitro studies in iron
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Animal
(2013),
7:10
, pp 1651–1658
&
The Animal Consortium 2013
doi:10.1017/S1751731113001134
animal
Advantages and disadvantages of the animal models
v. in vitro
studies in iron metabolism: a review
Y. Garcı´a
1
and J. Dı´az-Castro
2
-
1
Restorative Laboratory, National Centre of Biological Products, Mayabeque 6048, Cuba;
2
Department of Physiology and Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology,
University of Granada, E-18071 Granada, Spain
(Received 11 January 2013; Accepted 18 April 2013; First published online 21 June 2013)
Iron deficiency is the most common nutritional deficiency in the world. Special molecules have evolved for iron acquisition,
transport and storage in soluble, nontoxic forms. Studies about the effects of iron on health are focused on iron metabolism
or nutrition to prevent or treat iron deficiency and anemia. These studies are focused in two main aspects: (1) basic studies to
elucidate iron metabolism and (2) nutritional studies to evaluate the efficacy of iron supplementation to prevent or treat iron
deficiency and anemia. This paper reviews the advantages and disadvantages of the experimental models commonly used as well
as the methods that are more used in studies related to iron.
In vitro
studies have used different parts of the gut.
In vivo
studies
are done in humans and animals such as mice, rats, pigs and monkeys. Iron metabolism is a complex process that includes
interactions at the systemic level.
In vitro
studies, despite physiological differences to humans, are useful to increase knowledge
related to this essential micronutrient. Isotopic techniques are the most recommended in studies related to iron, but their high cost
and required logistic, making them difficult to use. The depletion–-repletion of hemoglobin is a method commonly used in animal
studies. Three depletion–-repletion techniques are mostly used: hemoglobin regeneration efficiency, relative biological values
(RBV) and metabolic balance, which are official methods of the association of official analytical chemists. These techniques are
well-validated to be used as studies related to iron and their results can be extrapolated to humans. Knowledge about the main
advantages and disadvantages of the
in vitro
and animal models, and methods used in these studies, could increase confidence
of researchers in the experimental results with less costs.
Keywords:
experimental models, iron metabolism,
in vitro studies, animal models
Implications
Iron deficiency is the most common nutritional deficiency
around the world and it is considered a major public health
problem. The mechanism and control of iron uptake by the gut
has puzzled investigators in both
in vivo
and
in vitro
studies.
A variety of experimental models have been used in studies
related to iron, however,
in vitro
systems or animal models
features different iron metabolism results compared with
humans. This review covers the main experimental models
commonly used in metabolic and nutritional studies of iron
homeostasis, including their advantages and disadvantages.
Introduction
Iron deficiency is the most common nutritional disorder
around the world and it is considered a public health problem
(McLean
et al
., 2007). Because of iron’s insolubility and
potential toxicity under physiological conditions, special
molecules have evolved for its acquisition, transport and
storage in soluble, nontoxic forms (Kolachala
et al
., 2007). The
mechanism and control of iron uptake by the gut has puzzled
investigators in both
in vivo
and
in vitro
studies (Latunde-
Dada
et al
., 1998; Morgan and Oates, 2002; Latunde-Dada,
2009). Studies about the effect of iron are focused mainly in
two ways; basic studies to elucidate iron metabolism, and
nutritional studies to evaluate the efficacy of iron supple-
mentation to prevent or treat iron deficiency and anemia
(Lynch and Stoltzfus, 2003; Nadadur
et al
., 2008; Theurl
et al
.,
2008; West and Oates, 2008; Lo¨nnerdal, 2009). There are
many studies available in the scientific literature about
iron absorption and regulation. Iron supplementation studies
determine factors that affect iron absorption and oxidative
damage (Beach
et al
., 2003; Casanueva and Viteri, 2003;
Troost
et al
., 2003; Lonnerdal
et al
., 2006; Nagababu
et al
.,
2008; Jin
et al
., 2009).
-
Present address: Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Campus
Universitario de Cartuja, University of Granada. E-mail: javierdc@ugr.es
1651
A variety of experimental models have been used in
studies related to iron through the time (Latunde-Dada
et al
.,
1998; Srigiridhar and Nair, 2000; Morgan and Oates, 2002;
Troost
et al
., 2003; Nagababu
et al
., 2008; Quintero
et al
., 2008;
Jin
et al
., 2009; Latunde-Dada, 2009). Nevertheless,
in vitro
systems or animal models have different iron metabolism
behaviour when compared with humans (Latunde-Dada
et al
.,
1998; Vaghefi
et al
., 2005; Patterson
et al
., 2008; Quintero
et al
., 2008). Studies related to iron involve different procedures
including isotopic techniques, simulated enzymatic gastro-
intestinal digestion or hemoglobin (Hb) depletion–repletion
(Srigiridhar and Nair, 2000; Beach
et al
., 2003; Vaghefi
et al
.,
2005; Kolachala
et al
., 2007; Quintero
et al
., 2008). This paper
reviews the main experimental models commonly used in iron
metabolic and nutritional studies, including their advantages
and disadvantages.
Iron metabolism
Iron is complexed in the food, and the nature of the foodstuff
determines its bioavailability. In most cases, dietary iron has to
be dissociated and made soluble in order for the iron to be
absorbed. The usually low pH of the stomach serves this func-
tion, releasing iron and maintaining it in Fe
3
1
state (Bothwell
et al
., 1979; Andrews, 1999). Once released, free iron comes
into contact with absorptive cells of the proximal small intestine.
Iron absorption takes place in the duodenum and the
proximal jejunum (Nadadur
et al
., 2008). Nonheme iron is
rendered soluble in gastric secretion and remains soluble in
the upper small intestine; its absorption is mediated by
divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1). Heme iron from Hb or
myoglobin is transported by a protein namely PCFT/HCP1
and FLVCR, that acts also as a folate transporter and this
seems to be its main role. This transporter protein appears
to function independently of the putative heme receptor
and receptor-mediated endocytosis and it acts as a direct
heme iron transfer process across plasma membranes (Qiu
et al
., 2006).
Ferroportin (FPN) plays a role in iron transport enterocytes
and in iron release from hepatocytes and macrophages.
The diffusion of Fe
2
1
across the basolateral membrane
is facilitated by FPN and Hephaestin, a membrane-bound
protein that promotes oxidation of Fe
2
1
to Fe
3
1
prior to its
release from transporter molecule. The cellular iron uptake,
storage and efflux depend on the functional demands of the
different cell types. In the majority of eukaryotic cells, iron
uptake occurs primarily by transferrin receptor (TFR)-mediated
endocytic pathway. There are two TFRs, namely TFR-1 and
TFR-2. The TFR-1 features a high affinity binding the complex
transferrin-Fe
2
1
, and it has a key role involved on iron uptake
in the majority of cells, while TFR-2 is expressed primarily in
liver and binds the complex transferrin-Fe
3
1
with lower affinity
(Nadadur
et al
., 2008). In addition to the cellular acquisition of
iron by the classic transferrin-dependent pathway, there is
another pathway, the uptake of nontransferrin-bound iron
(NTBI) that requires iron reduction and subsequent cellular
uptake of Fe
2
1
by DMT1 (Lane and Lawen, 2008). The iron
reduction of NTBI and uptake is mediated by mucosal ferric
reductases such as Duodenal Cytochrome b (Dcytb; Krause
et al
., 2000). In presence of catalytic concentrations of ascor-
bate, Dcytb may catalyze electron transfer from intracellular
ascorbate to extracellular ascorbyl free radical to generate
ascorbate, which could then directly donate a single electron to
Fe
3
1
or Cu
2
1
. These results are supported by a novel model of
NTBI reduction and uptake pathway in K562 erythroleukemia
cells (Lane and Lawen, 2008). Figure 1 summarizes iron
absorption pathways in the intestinal enterocyte.
The stored iron accounts for 20% to 30% of body iron and
the majority is bound to ubiquitin and the highly conserved iron
Figure 1
Summary diagram of iron absorption pathways in the intestinal enterocyte. Nonheme iron: All nonheme iron is ultimately taken up from the lumen
by divalent metal transporter (DMT1) situated on the microvillus membrane, before joining the labile iron pool in the cytoplasm. Ferric iron must first be
reduced to the ferrous form by Dcytb before uptake. Ferrous iron in the labile iron pool is then transferred to the circulation by ferroportin (FPN), which requires
hephaestin for oxidation to the ferric form in order to bind to circulating transferrin. Heme iron: Heme iron is taken up by receptor-mediated endocytosis.
Internalized heme iron is degraded by Heme-oxigenase, releasing nonheme iron. The nonheme iron is then transported to the cytoplasm, joined to the labile
iron pool and is transferred to the bloodstream by FPN in the same manner as nonheme iron.
Garcı´a and Dı´az-Castro
1652
binding protein, ferritin (Nadadur
et al
., 2008). Absorption is
regulated according to the body’s needs by hepcidin, a small
cysteine-rich cationic peptide currently considered as the most
important factor controlling iron absorption (Lynch, 2007).
A study using human biopsies and rats concluded that the
intestine iron uptake takes place through a sequential transfer
involving interaction of luminal transferrin, transferrin–TFR and
ferritin (Kolachala
et al
., 2007).
In addition, levels of key proteins in the absorptive
enterocyte are influenced by oxygen tension in the cell,
which, in turn, affects the transcription factor hypoxia-
inducible factor 2
a
(HIF-2
a
) (Mastrogiannaki
et al
., 2009).
This fact leads to subsequent changes in the transcription of
DMT1 and FPN. In addition, the content of iron within the
enterocyte regulates iron absorption through its effects
on iron regulatory proteins (IRP) types 1 and 2 and their
subsequent effect on mRNAs encoding DMT1, FPN, ferritin
and HIF-2
a
. (Galy
et al
., 2008). The IRPs bind to specific
sequences (iron-responsive elements ) that influence mRNA
translation (linked with FPN, ferritin and HIF-2
a
) or stability
(linked with TfR-1 and DMT1; Sa´nchez
et al.
, 2007). Conse-
quently, presence of hypoxia or cellular iron deficiency,
DMT1 and FPN are upregulated, promoting iron absorption
from the diet.
Hepcidin is secreted into the circulation by hepatocytes
and play a key role in the regulation of iron metabolism.
Hepatic hepcidin levels are regulated by iron stores, hypoxia,
erythropoietic rate and inflammatory status (Nicolas
et al
.,
2002). Hepcidin acts by blocking the iron efflux into the
blood circulation from the gut and the macrophages by
binding to the iron transporter FPN, resulting in its ubiqui-
tylation and degradation. Low levels of circulating hepcidin
are associated with many forms of genetic iron overload
(Nemeth and Ganz, 2006). Various signaling pathways have
been shown to regulate hepatic hepcidin levels with bone
morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) which signal via intracellular
proteins that transduce extracellular signals to the nucleus
where they activate downstream gene transcription. These
proteins are homologs of both the Drosophila protein, mothers
against decapentaplegic (MAD) and the Caenorhabditis ele-
gans protein SMA (from gene SMA for small body size). The
name of this group of proteins (SMADs) is a portmanteau of
the two and they are emerging as key regulators of iron
metabolism (Meynard
et al
., 2009). The BMP/SMAD4 pathway
has major effects on liver hepcidin levels. Bone morphogenetic
protein-binding endothelial cell precursor-derived regulator
(BMPER), a known regulator of BMP signaling, was found to
be overexpressed at the mRNA and protein levels in liver of
genetically hypotransferrinemic mice (Trfhpx/hpx). Soluble
BMPER peptide inhibited BMP2- and BMP6-dependent hepci-
din promoter activity in both HepG2 and HuH7 cells. Addition
of BMPER peptide to primary human hepatocytes abolished
the BMP2-dependent increase in hepcidin mRNA, whereas
injection of BMPER peptide into mice resulted in reduced liver
hepcidin and increased serum iron levels. Thus BMPER may
play an important role in suppressing hepcidin production in
hypotransferrinemic mice (Patel
et al
., 2012).
Common methods used in Fe metabolism
In vitro experimental models
Because iron absorption takes place at the intestinal level,
several
in vitro
studies have used different fragments of gut,
such as enterocyte suspensions
,
brush border membranes and
vesicles, perfused duodenal segment or everted gut sacs
(Simpson
et al
., 1986; Goddard
et al
., 1997; Moshtaghie,
2006). To minimize the effect of the lack of a mucous layer
in enterocyte suspensions, ascorbate was used as a quasi-
physiological substitute for gut lumen iron chelators (Goddard
et al
., 1997).
Caco-2, derived from human colonic adenocarcinoma
cells is a suitable model to study iron absorption. Although
Caco-2 cells are originally colonic, they differentiate in culture,
developing brush border membranes and exhibiting transport
properties similar to intestinal epithelia. With regards to iron
uptake, many investigators agree that Caco-2 cell monolayers
are valid models which can be used to define the mechanisms
of iron absorption as well as to investigate factors which
affect iron availability (Glahn and Van Campen, 1997; Zhu
et al
., 2006; Arredondo
et al
., 2008). The cells express
profusely abundant intestinal microvilli, enzymes and differ-
entiation markers typical of human small intestinal entero-
cytes. Thus, Caco-2 cells are potentially useful as an
in vitro
model to elucidate vectorial epithelial passage by para- and
transcellular routes. The cell cultures have demonstrated
several uptake characteristics observed in animal and human
studies. Iron uptake by the apical surface is transported to the
basolateral pole in a process that is saturable and facilitated
not only by iron ionization, but also by the iron status of the
cell. In addition, Caco-2 cells resynthesize three important
proteins involved in iron metabolism, apotransferrin, trans-
ferrin and ferritin (Latunde-Dada
et al
., 1998).
BeWo is a human placental cell line derivated from a
choriocarcinoma. These cells have been used as an
in vitro
model to study placental uptake a variety of nutrients including
glucose, amino acids and iron. However, unlike Caco-2 cells,
which are widely used in a similar culture system as a model of
intestinal epithelial cell transport, BeWo cells do not feature
the contact inhibition of growth. This fact makes more difficult
to obtain them and sustain an intact cell monolayer that would
be optimal for transport studies. Furthermore, the permeability
of BeWo cells layers is dependent on the molecular size of the
substrate applied (Heaton
et al
., 2008).
Animal models used to study iron homeostasis
Most of our knowledge on iron homoeostasis relies on
studies performed on mice. Several genetic models are avail-
able, including both natural and gene targeting generated
mutations of the main genes involved in iron absorption,
recycling, storage and utilization. The mouse also represents a
unique model to identify novel regulators of iron homoeostasis
because its behavior is similar to humans in disorders such
as hemochromatosis and anemia (Fiorito
et al
., 2012). For
instance, the significant role of DMT1 in iron intestinal
absorption was evident in studies in microcytin anemic
Fe metabolism: animal and
in vitro
models review
1653
mice and Belgrade rat. A spontaneous mutation (G185R)
found in both strains caused significant defects in intestinal
iron absorption and assimilation by eritroid precursors cells
(Fleming
et al
., 1998). Moreover, the targeted mutation of
murine DMT1 gene (Slc11a2-/- mice) further confirmed its role
in intestinal iron absorption (Gunshin
et al
., 2005). Embryonic
lethality observed in TFR-1 knockout mice further reinforces
the important role of TFR-1 in cellular iron uptake (Hentze
et al
., 2004). Severe anemia and rapid accumulation of iron in
FPN deficient mice suggested that FPN is essential for iron
recycling (Donovan
et al
., 2005). The study of iron-overload in
the upstream stimulatory factor 2 (USF-2) knockout mice led to
the serendipitous discovery of hepcidin (HAMP) gene (Nicolas
et al
., 2001). Targeted deletion of hepcidin gene in mice or
mutations in human gene result in elevated body iron stores,
presumably because of hyperabsorption associated with
decreased iron in macrophages (Knutson
et al
., 2003).
Transgenic knockout mouse models of IRP1, IRP2 indicate
that the double knockout is embryologically lethal (Smith
et al
., 2004). Observation of no overt phenotype for IRP1-/-
knockout mouse is rather surprising and suggests that IRP2
can compensate for the loss of IRP1. Mouse models of IRP2
knockout exhibited increased iron content and expression of
DMT1, ferritin and FPN. These observations suggest that
other unidentified factors may participate along with IRPs in
cellular iron homeostasis (Hentze
et al
., 2004). In mouse, a
model of hereditary hemochromatosis was developed, which
is an iron-overload disorder resulting from mutations in
hemojuvelin, a protein involved in the maintenance of iron
homeostasis (Huang
et al
., 2005).
Animal models used for nutritional studies
Many nutritional studies related to iron are performed in
humans (Beach
et al
., 2003; Troost
et al
., 2003; Lonnerdal
et al
.,
2006). Nevertheless, human research in basic metabolism is
expensive and difficult to perform accurately. Animal studies
are used in primary studies and sometimes followed with
selective studies in people. Traditionally, rats have been the
model of choice when performing nutritional studies. However,
the rat model has a number of limitations which makes extra-
polation to humans really questionable, including a significantly
different energy and food intake, a different lifespan and body
proportion, differences in intestinal morphology and enteric
microbiota, as well as other distinct physiological differences.
Another major problem with using rat models for mineral
studies is their propensity for practicing coprophagy. Although
this is an effective way for animals to recycle nutrients and
maximize nutrient absorption, it may have a dramatic impact
on the results of a nutritional study (Quintero
et al
., 2008).
Some putative iron-binding proteins isolated from rats have
also been demonstrated to have biological activity in humans.
The absorption and metabolism of heme iron are known
to occur in the rat mucosa similar to that in humans, even if
the absorption of heme iron is lower in the rodent. Another
difference between iron metabolism in rats and humans is the
relatively high mucosal cell turnover in rats leading to higher
iron losses. Iron absorption in rats is more dependent on serum
iron levels than on internal iron turnover or iron stores as in
humans. The expected increase of nonheme iron absorption
when meat protein is added to the diet is also very difficult to
demonstrate in rats (Hartmann and Bissel, 1982; Gordon and
Godber, 1989; Conrad
et al
., 1992; Roberts
et al
., 1993).
Although no animal model will ever perfectly mimic
the human condition, the pig has emerged as a superior
nonprimate experimental model because despite some
anatomic differences, the physiology of digestion and
associated metabolic processes are very similar between
humans and pigs (Miller and Ullrey, 1987; Swindle
et al
.,
1994). Pigs are also the only widely utilized animal model
that is truly omnivorous, and they have strikingly similar
nutritional requirements to that of humans. Although the
porcine model bears some remarkable similarities to
humans, it is important to recognize that there are some
differences between the two species, which may lead to a
differing response to certain experimental regimes. Although
the physiology of digestion and associated metabolic pro-
cesses are alike between pigs and humans, it should be
recognized that the absolute length and weight of the
intestine does differ. Differences in body fat content between
pigs and humans could translate into differences in nutrient
absorption in cases of severe obesity. Incidentally, pigs
practice coprophagy, which can be another confounding
experimental factor, but this practice is quite rare in pigs, as
compared with rats that frequently practice coprophagy
(Quintero
et al
., 2008)
.
The broiler chicken may be a useful model for initial
in vivo
screening of Fe bioavailability in foods because of its growth
rate, anatomy, size and low cost. This model exhibited the
appropriate responses to Fe deficiency and has potential to
serve as a model for Fe bioavailability. Such a model should
be most useful as an intermediate test of
in vivo
Fe bio-
availability observations in preparation for subsequent human
studies (Tako
et al
., 2010).
Animal models used for gestational iron studies
Animal models are capable of providing important informa-
tion on the causal link between restricted dietary iron intake,
induction of gestational iron deficiency anemia and adverse
pregnancy outcomes. Gestational iron deficiency anemia has
been studied in laboratory rodents. However, rodents do not
provide an adequate model for the effects of third-trimester
iron deficiency anemia on the fetus. Rodents are precocial,
and the pups are born shortly after completion of organo-
genesis, whereas an extended period of postembryonic
intra-uterine development occurs in human and nonhuman
primates. Rodents, the most common laboratory animal
model for human developmental experiments, complete
embryogenesis at 15 to 16 days of gestation and are typically
born at 18 to 21 days of gestation.
In addition, rhesus monkeys have single-offspring preg-
nancies and are known to display hematologic changes
similar to those of humans in late pregnancy. Although
the biology of pregnancy is similar in monkeys and humans,
the environmental standardization possible in nonhuman
Garcı´a and Dı´az-Castro
1654
primate studies, and the related lack of confounding factors
markedly increases the sensitivity of small-sample experi-
ments (Golub
et al
., 2006). Monkeys and rodents show us
important evidence about the relation of iron deficiency
anemia during gestation and lactation and a vulnerable
period in early development that may result in long-lasting
damage (Beard, 2007).
Advantages and disadvantages of in vitro and ex-vivo
techniques
Researchers have developed
in vitro
techniques to
study iron availability. One of the most ancient methods
to estimate dietary iron availability included a simulated
gastrointestinal digestion, followed by measurement of
soluble and/or dialyzable low molecular weight iron to
investigate the chemically available iron in a wide variety of
foods (Miller
et al
., 1981). This work used radioisotopes
of iron to measure available iron, but another group used
the same
in vitro
method to study changes in ferritin
iron and protein during cooking and gastric digestion by
measuring ferritin concentrated by a gel filtration column
(Hoppler
et al
., 2008). These methods could use iron
availability quantification with spectrophotometric methods
using an iron chromogen such as 1,10 Phenantroline or
Ferrozine because of the specific reaction with Fe
2
1
. They
serve as methods for ranking or categorizing foods
with respect to the effects of variables such as species,
processing, cooking, etc. Simulated
in vitro
digestion is
not a method on its own to measure iron availability. How-
ever, it may be used as a prestep, for example, to cell
studies. These results cannot be extrapolated to absorption
in the human intestine. They are useful in predicting the
trends, but not the magnitude, of the absorptive response
in humans.
Everted gut sac is an
ex-vivo
systems used since the
middle of the past century in basic studies to elucidate
the mechanism of intestinal iron uptake with contradictory
results. In an attempt to resolve these divergent views,
the use of this technique was examined in studies of iron
absorption and used radio-iron isotopes of
59
Fe (Pearson
and Reich, 1965). This system proved to be susceptible to
large errors at low iron concentrations. The methods of
multiple transfers permitted precise estimation of uptake
because the initial and final counts in the incubation
medium could be determined easily, without having to
transfer from the incubation vessel to the counting tube
with the associated concomitant losses.
In vitro
gut
sac systems have a relative insensitivity to physiological
changes known to alter iron uptake
in vivo
, suggesting that
mucosal participation in iron transport may have an extra-
mucosal control. Nevertheless, researchers have continued
to use everted gut sac systems in studies of iron interaction
with other metals such as manganese and aluminium
(Moshtaghie and Taher, 1993; Moshtaghie, 2006).
Another of the
ex-vivo
systems is the
Ussing
chamber that
had been used to elucidate the influence of heme iron and
peptide release during globin hydrolysis and cysteine during
iron absorption. This experimental system uses fully orga-
nized digestive membranes, including the mucus layer that
affects the diffusion of iron from lumen to enterocytes. This is
an advantage of an
Ussing
chamber in relation to a perfused
duodenal segment, everted gut sac or enterocyte suspension
where the wash buffer and manipulation damage the mucus
layer (Vaghefi
et al
., 2005).
Isotopes provide an invaluable means for studying the
metabolism of iron. Stable isotopes of iron are
54
Fe,
57
Fe and
58
Fe. Because stable isotopes have virtually no health risk
in their use, they can be used in measured amounts to
trace how the micronutrients are metabolized by the body.
This technique is considered the ‘gold standard’ for iron and
other nutrient bioavailability studies in humans, including
children. Isotopic methods were used to measure the effect-
iveness of fortification and supplementation programmes
in several countries (Aggett, 1999; Walczyk
et al
., 2005;
Moretti
et al
., 2006). There are two radioactive isotopes of
iron suitable for use as biological tracers,
55
Fe and
59
Fe. In
addition to the use of these isotopes individually, it is often
desirable to introduce both
55
Fe and
59
Fe as a dual tracer
in an experiment and determine the activity of each inde-
pendently (Swindle
et al
., 1994; Pizarro
et al
., 2002). The
hazards associated with the use of radioactive materials,
the radioisotope could be replaced with a stable isotope
(Morais
et al
., 1996; Zinn
et al
., 1999).
Iron absorption has been studied in mice by using the
radioisotopes
55
Fe and
59
Fe in tied-off or dissected and everted
duodenal segments. Owing to several drawbacks, the exten-
ded use of these approaches is discouraged because after oral
administration of
57
Fe-containing solutions, it is possible to
measure both duodenal iron retention and duodenal iron
transfer to specific organs using inductively coupled plasma
mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). As
57
Fe is administered orally, no
surgery is needed before the end of the experiment, thus
allowing the measurement of iron absorption under physio-
logic conditions. Moreover, the use of ICP-MS for
57
Fe detection
ensures high sensitivity and provides quantitative data (Fiorito
et al
., 2012). A similar methodology was used to study the iron
absorption and bioavailability from supplemented formula
milk administrated to lactating rats (Gonza´lez-Iglesias
et al
.,
2012). The Hb repletion assay is widely used in weanling
pig model to asses serum iron and Hb regeneration. The
animals are fed the experimental diets for a period of 1, 2, 5 or
20 weeks. Blood volume is estimated from BW and then
hemoglobin regeneration efficiency is calculated (South
et al
.
2000; Quintero
et al
., 2008).
The broiler chicken was used as a model to study iron
bioavailability with a unique duodenal loop technique for
direct measurement of intestinal iron absorption. One-week-
old chicks were allocated into iron-deficient
v
. iron-adequate
treatment groups for 6 weeks. At week 7, birds were anes-
thetized and their duodenal loops were exposed. The loop
was isolated and a nonocclusive catheter was inserted into
the duodenal vein for blood sampling. A stable isotope
solution containing
58
Fe was injected into the loop. Blood
samples were collected every 5 min for 120 min postinjection
Fe metabolism: animal and
in vitro
models review
1655
Table 1
Main advantages and disadvantages of the models
In vitro
Animal models
Caco-2 cells
BeWo cells
Ex vivo
Mouse
Rat
Pig
Broiler chicken
Rhesus monkeys
Advantages
Differentiates in culture,
developing brush border
membranes, exhibiting
transport properties
similar to intestinal
epithelia (Glahn and Van
Campen, 1997; Zhu
et al., 2006; Arredondo
et al., 2008)
Ussing chamber uses fully
organized digestive membranes,
avoiding the wash buffer and
manipulation damage to the
mucus layer (Vaghefi
et al., 2005)
Behavior similar to humans in
disorders such as
hemochromatosis and
anemia (Fleming
et al., 1998;
Knutson
et al., 2003; Hentze
et al., 2004; Smith et al., 2004;
Donovan
et al., 2005; Gunshin
et al., 2005; Huang et al., 2005;
Fiorito
et al., 2012)
The absorption and
metabolism of heme
iron are known to
occur in the rat mucosa
similar to that in
humans, even if the
absorption of heme
iron is lower in the
rodent
The physiology of digestion
and associated metabolic
processes are very similar
between humans and pigs
(Miller and Ullrey, 1987;
Swindle
et al., 1994)
Growth rate, anatomy,
size and low cost.
Appropriate responses
to Fe deficiency and has
potential to serve as a
model for Fe
bioavailability (Tako
et al., 2010)
Single-offspring
pregnancies and are
known to display
hematologic changes
similar to those of
humans in late
pregnancy (Golub
et al.,
2006)
Express abundant
intestinal microvilli,
enzymes and
differentiation markers
typical of human
enterocytes
Stable isotopes of iron are
54
Fe,
57
Fe and
58
Fe. Because stable
isotopes have virtually no health
risk, they can be used in
measured amounts to trace how
the micronutrients are
metabolized by the body
(Aggett, 1999; Walczyk
et al.,
2005; Moretti
et al., 2006)
Truly omnivorous, and they
have strikingly similar
nutritional requirements
to that of humans
Resynthesize apotransferrin,
transferrin1 and ferritin
(Latunde-Dada
et al.,
1998)
Disadvantages
Do not feature the
contact inhibition
Radio-iron isotopes of
59
Fe are
susceptible to large errors at low
iron concentrations (Pearson and
Reich, 1965)
Significantly different
energy and food intake,
a different lifespan and
body proportion,
differences in intestinal
morphology and enteric
microbiota compared
with humans
Differences in body fat
content between pigs and
humans could translate
into differences in
nutrient absorption in
cases of severe obesity.
Incidentally, pigs practice
coprophagy, but this
practice is quite rare in
pigs, as compared with
rats that frequently
practice coprophagy
(Quintero
et al., 2008)
More difficult to obtain
them and sustain a
monolayer.
Practicing coprophagy
(Quintero
et al., 2008)
Permeability is dependent
on the molecular size
of the substrate
applied (Heaton
et al.,
2008)
Iron absorption is more
dependent on serum
iron levels than on
internal iron turnover as
in humans (Hartmann
and Bissel, 1982;
Gordon and Godber,
1989; Conrad
et al.,
1992; Roberts
et al.,
1993)
Garcı
´a
and
Dı
´az-Castro
1656
for measurement of
58
Fe concentrations. Tako
et al
. (2010)
evaluated expression of proteins involved in Fe uptake and
transfer as DMT1, FPN1 and Dcytb as an indicator of iron
bioavailability. Table 1 summarizes the main advantages and
disadvantages of the models studied.
Conclusions
Many experimental models have been used since the past
century in studies related to iron, most of which are still cur-
rently in use.
In vitro
models are usually simple, easy to handle
and the results are obtained quickly with lower cost. These are
some advantages in relation to studies in animal or humans.
On the other hand, we have to consider the ethical aspect and
only use animal and human studies when it is necessary.
Isotopic techniques are highly recommended in studies
related to iron, but these are difficult in many routines
worldwide because the experimental design requires a lot of
special logistic conditions which are currently not feasible
in many developing countries. Knowing about the main
advantages and disadvantages of the
in vitro
and animal
models used in studies related to iron is crucial to the
researcher in the field of nutritional studies.
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