Article · February 005 Source: RePEc citations 35 reads 4,815 authors

Table 2: Labour Cost Levels (Labour Cost per Hour Worked) by Major Manufacturing Branch, 1980-2003, US=100 
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2003 
Germany 
Food, beverages and tobacco 
64.0% 36.4%
71.2% 89.3% 54.0% 61.8% 
Textiles, apparel & Leather 
107.6%
65.4%
130.8%
168.7%
104.3%
118.4% 
Chemicals & allied products 
110.6%
62.7%
115.8%
139.4%
84.5% 
88.6% 
Basic and Fabricated metal products 
82.7% 
52.5%
99.9% 
125.0%
81.4% 
93.1% 
Machinery and equipment: of which 
ICT-producing 126.8%
68.6%
118.5%
144.6%
70.5% 
89.1% 
Non-ICT-producing 96.7% 
54.2%
105.3%
131.5%
86.1% 
91.7% 
Other manufacturing 
94.9% 
54.7%
101.5%
131.3%
80.9% 
95.7% 
Total Manufacturing 
96.1% 
55.7%
107.1%
132.7%
82.1% 
92.9% 
France 
Food, beverages and tobacco 
88.5% 52.2%
93.9% 104.2%
68.4% 76.3% 
Textiles, apparel & Leather 
135.8%
82.8%
140.2%
154.3%
98.0% 
122.2% 
Chemicals & allied products 
135.6%
79.8%
133.0%
139.6%
92.5% 104.8% 
Basic and Fabricated metal products 
98.2% 
66.3%
112.3%
120.6%
82.3% 
96.5% 
Machinery and equipment: of which 
ICT-producing 148.8%
84.7%
141.5%
141.2%
77.9% 
102.8% 
Non-ICT-producing 103.3%
63.0%
107.8%
113.6%
76.3% 
78.8% 
Other manufacturing 
117.5%
70.9%
119.7%
132.7%
85.1% 
103.9% 
Total Manufacturing 
110.2%
66.6%
113.6%
122.0%
78.7% 
89.8% 

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Table 2: Continued 
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2003 
United Kingdom 
Food, beverages and tobacco 
88.3% 61.7%
112.1%
103.8%
90.7% 105.9% 
Textiles, apparel & Leather 
82.8% 
53.6%
89.8% 
93.1% 
98.7% 
112.7% 
Chemicals & allied products 
85.5% 52.6%
94.6% 93.2% 91.4% 97.4% 
Basic and Fabricated metal products 
57.4% 
41.1%
67.6% 
75.9% 
82.2% 
92.3% 
Machinery and equipment: of which 
ICT-producing 
67.6% 43.1%
75.5% 89.8% 71.6% 76.4% 
Non-ICT-producing 
67.4% 43.6%
76.5% 70.9% 69.7% 73.2% 
Other 
manufacturing 
85.9% 58.0%
97.5% 100.8%
99.6% 117.7% 
Total 
Manufacturing 
74.5% 49.1%
85.4% 85.4% 82.4% 92.2% 
Note: ICT production relates to Office Machinery, Electronic Valves and Tubes and Telecommunication Equipment 
Source: Groningen Growth and Development Centre (http://www.ggdc.net/icop.html)

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Table 3: Unit Labour Costs by Major Manufacturing Branch, 1980-2003, US=100
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2003 
Germany 
Food, beverages and tobacco 
115.3%
68.6% 118.5%
157.5%
73.8% 87.5% 
Textiles, apparel & Leather 
138.7%
92.1% 
157.9%
214.3%
134.7%
196.9% 
Chemicals & allied products 
83.5% 62.7% 121.8%
128.8%
74.0% 82.1% 
Basic and Fabricated metal products 
103.8%
64.6% 
115.5%
144.0%
94.3% 
109.7% 
Machinery and equipment: of which 
ICT-producing 115.3%
46.5% 
113.0%
213.8%
94.1% 
128.9% 
Non-ICT-producing 137.2%
75.6% 
144.1%
175.2%
118.3%
139.3% 
Other manufacturing 
118.7%
69.7% 
119.2%
133.3%
74.9% 
94.4% 
Total Manufacturing 
99.1% 
60.5% 
116.1%
149.5%
102.5%
128.7% 
France 
Food, beverages and tobacco 
115.9%
83.4% 121.6%
148.3%
81.1% 87.5% 
Textiles, apparel & Leather 
140.7%
105.2%
174.8%
191.7%
117.7%
156.9% 
Chemicals & allied products 
64.2% 74.8% 110.1%
94.8% 59.2% 69.2% 
Basic and Fabricated metal products 
96.9% 
56.9% 
106.3%
118.3%
82.1% 
99.2% 
Machinery and equipment: of which 
ICT-producing 84.2% 
43.2% 
110.8%
165.7%
107.8%
195.2% 
Non-ICT-producing 189.7%
103.1%
170.6%
148.5%
85.6% 
90.6% 
Other manufacturing 
165.6%
87.3% 
135.7%
134.8%
78.0% 
92.9% 
Total Manufacturing 
111.2%
74.0% 
123.7%
128.6%
85.0% 
102.2% 

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Table 3: Continued 
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2003 
United Kingdom 
Food, beverages and tobacco 
159.7%
105.3%
157.3%
150.8%
109.4%
121.4% 
Textiles, apparel & Leather 
102.1%
81.4% 
115.6%
123.6%
133.7%
172.3% 
Chemicals & allied products 
90.8% 62.1% 104.9%
88.5% 87.6% 101.1% 
Basic and Fabricated metal products 
195.3%
90.9% 
99.0% 
121.1%
131.2%
162.1% 
Machinery and equipment: of which 
ICT-producing 
113.4%
49.2% 96.9% 98.5% 108.1%
86.3% 
Non-ICT-producing 177.7%
102.4%
147.7%
122.8%
115.9%
120.1% 
Other 
manufacturing 
119.4%
76.9% 97.2% 90.1% 89.5% 103.1% 
Total Manufacturing 
128.8%
78.5% 
114.3%
109.8%
112.6%
129.1% 
Note: ICT production relates to Office Machinery, Electronic Valves and Tubes and Telecommunication Equipment 
Source: See Tables 1 and 2 

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The change in comparative productivity and ULC levels in the UK manufacturing sector 
relative to the U.S. are in sharp contrast with those for Germany and France. Between 1980 and 1995 
UK productivity levels significantly improved in all major manufacturing sectors (except for textiles). 
Just as in France and Germany, the UK performance weakened relative to that of the U.S. 
manufacturing sector since 1995, but not as strong as in Germany. Strikingly the productivity 
performance of the ICT machinery sector was much better by 2003 than in France and Germany. 
However, with the improvement in comparative productivity levels, labour cost levels also increased 
rapidly in the UK, partly because the UK pound depreciated less than the euro since the mid 1990s. In 
2003, UK wage levels were above those of Germany in food manufacturing, chemicals and other 
manufacturing. As a result, whereas the UK improvement in productivity relative to the U.S. went 
together with a decline in unit labour cost levels until the mid 1990s, the stagnation of relative 
productivity and the rise in nominal wage labour led to a considerable worsening of the ULC position 
since 1995 and in particular since 2000, except for ICT production.
The upshot of this brief overview of comparative levels of productivity, labour cost and unit 
labour cost in these four major industrialized countries, is the large diversity in terms of comparative 
performance. The earlier conclusion that – at the aggregate level – productivity and labour cost 
basically move in tandem – so that ULC levels are more similar countries – is not confirmed when 
looking at more detailed industry level. Part of these differences may be due to differences in 
industrial structure (as is the case, for example, within machinery and equipment), but industry-
specific characteristic may also inhibit trade between countries. Finally, measurement issues 
concerning price indices and PPPs to obtain volume measures may also affect the results at more 
detailed level.
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19 See also van Ark (2004).

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