Archived: The Educational System in the United States: Case Study Findings

Table 2—Typical schedule for an eighth-grade middle school student
Time
Activity
8:00—8:20
Advisory Period
9:15—10:00
English

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Table 2—Typical schedule for an eighth-grade middle school student
—
Continued
Time
Activity
10:05—10:50
Algebra or Prealgebra
10:55—11:40
Elective class (foreign language, art, gym, shop, computer, chorus, band,
orchestra)
11:45—12:05
Lunch
12:10—12:55
Science
1:00—1:45
Elective class (foreign language, art, gym, shop, computers, chorus, band,
orchestra)
1:50—2:35
U.S. History (or other social studies class)
The courses students take during these hours vary widely. In early adolescence,
regardless of the structure of schooling, most students across the country are en-
rolled in similar classes that cover the standard fundamentals of the curriculum
(English, math, social studies, science), but this soon changes. The process of
determining who will take advanced courses usually begins with placement in the
first algebra course. Once offered fairly uniformly as a ninth-grade course, algebra
is now an eighth grade option in many schools, and in the more elite schools in
two of the three cities studied, it was offered to a small number of precocious
seventh-graders. Placement in this course may carry connotations of prospective
academic success, and parents eager for such confirmation of their child’s poten-
tial may push for early enrollment in algebra. Scores on annual standardized tests
and parent requests were mentioned most often as the basis for these placement
decisions; it is not uncommon, however, for parental influence to take prece-
dence over test scores.
Although math is often the initial class in which students are separated by per-
ceived ability, this division soon happens throughout the curriculum. By the early
years of high school, students who sat side by side in elementary school may sel-
dom see one another again. In large urban high schools there are fairly distinct
curricula for those who are college-bound and those who are not. Even among
those headed to college, decisions must be made about whether to take the more
rigorous advanced-placement courses and honors courses or the traditional aca-
demic versions. These classes often carry different numbers of credits, involve dif-
fering degrees of depth, and are described by students as differing in classroom
ambiance, with the higher-track classes drawing more serious students who are
more likely to stay on task. As one student at Uptown High School noted about
his preference for honors English: ‘‘You can concentrate better, because in my
regular English class there were a lot of disturbances. Honors English has a more
positive environment, although it is the same teacher.’’ Similarly, mathematics
class can have a dramatically different tone and purpose even in the same school

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with the same teacher. In one school, a factory clock with individual time cards
was mounted on the classroom wall. Arriving for general math, students shuffled
in, pulled their cards and punched in, before taking their seats. The teacher ex-
plained that this was a part of the school’s effort to prepare them for the work
world they would soon be entering. During a later honors precalculus class held
in the same room, the college-bound students made no use of the apparatus.
Although there are these widely differing courses, there is often some fluidity
among who takes them. Students might take advanced classes in some subjects
and not in others. It is not unusual, for example, for a student to be perceived
as capable of the more advanced types of classes in math but not in English, and
vice versa. With each semester’s enrollment, students select courses from a menu
of options of both required and elective courses within the parameters of mini-
mum high school graduation requirements set by the state, and, for those who
are college bound, with attention to the requirements set by colleges and univer-
sities that students might wish to attend. For example, some states require 2 years
of high school math (at any level) for graduation and have no foreign language
requirements; universities in the same states, however, might expect 3 to 4 years
of math and at least 2 years of a foreign language.
Those going immediately to work after graduating from high school seem to hope
that the diploma alone, regardless of actual courses taken, will suffice for entry
positions, as there is little formal articulation of employer needs in shaping high
school curricula. The significant exceptions to this were the small number of
vocational programs we observed within large high schools that had been de-
signed cooperatively with industry.
Accordingly, it is possible for different students to have markedly different aca-
demic experiences, even within the same high school. At Uptown High School,
one senior described a course load that included honors chemistry and calculus,
American government, a foreign language, and a literature course, while a junior
in the same school described a school day sequence of tech math, tech English,
gym, band, and computer class. These ‘‘tech’’ versions of courses often represent
simplified approaches to the subject matter for students who are not planning to
attend college. For those students for whom English is not their native language,
the curriculum may take on further variations. Some students have the proficiency
to take regular courses except in English, where they enroll in special English as
a Second Language (ESL) courses. Others may arrive speaking little or no English.
These students are accommodated in different ways, depending on the school and
on their native language. Schools with large immigrant populations may provide
bilingual programs, in which all the basic courses are taught in the students’ na-
tive language while the student learns English.

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Students must make selections from among these many offerings, often with lim-
ited information about the implications of their choices for future academic work,
college planning, or vocational options. Informal knowledge often takes prece-
dence, and those students whose parents or peers are well informed have clear
advantages in developing an academic plan that will enhance their future aca-
demic or occupational opportunities.
Variation of both academic and nonacademic programs across schools is affected
by financial considerations. Schools plan their programs within a budget allotted
by state-determined practices, typically based on property taxes. Per capita spend-
ing for education can vary greatly within the same region, providing more re-
sources for schools in higher-income school districts. (All figures reported were
provided in the schools’ annual statistical reports.) For example, within the Metro
City area, the amount of money spent per student was reported as approximately
$6,600 at the inner city Uptown High School, $10,300 at Springdale High School,
and $13,400 at suburban Hamilton High School. In the schools observed, these
differences in funding were cited as explanations for differences in teacher-student
ratios, availability of textbooks, computer resources, and the presence (or ab-
sence) of sports, music, and student organizations. Parents may also raise addi-
tional money for use by the school for special purchases or extracurricular activi-
ties; such fund-raising is likely to be more successful in higher-income neighbor-
hoods.