2.8.3 Free riding
Free riding is a common challenge for collective action and the provision of public
goods. Free riders are people who consume more than their fair share of a public
resource or contribute less than their fair share to the cost of its production. In the
context of FOs, free riding occurs when some members (or non-members) benefit
from the efforts or investments made by others. For example, an FO may help provide
Aquaculture farmer organizations and cluster management – Concepts and experiences
16
inputs to members and recover some of its costs by selling members’ products in bulk;
however, members may be tempted to make use of the inputs and then sell individually
to local traders if it is more profitable. Non-members can also benefit (free ride) from
the activities of FOs; for example, if an FO spends time and resources lobbying for a
change in policy to benefit all small farmers and is successful, both members and non-
members will benefit even though non-members have not contributed to the costs of
the activity. Free riding is usually considered to be a problem when it leads to the non-
production or underproduction of a public good or when it leads to the excessive use of
a common property resource. FOs must therefore establish systems to limit free riding
and provide incentives for all members to invest in the organization.
2.9
WHO BENEFITS FROM FARMERS’ ORGANIZATIONS?
Even though FOs have the potential to provide many benefits to small-scale farmers
in poor countries, it is often argued that they provide limited benefits to poor and
subsistence farmers.
10
FOs are often established by better-off producers,
11
as poorer
farmers often lack the resources to become members of commercially oriented FOs
that require members to produce a reliable surplus that meets market requirements.
Also, membership fees, even if low, may still be too expensive for poor subsistence
farmers, especially women farmers with limited cash. Women farmers may also
find it difficult to join FOs, as they have so many other demands on their time (e.g.
household duties, child rearing) and could also face cultural constraints. Often, the
poorest small-scale producers live in poor and remote areas and face thin markets,
resulting in a lack of successful FOs in the area for farmers to join. For these farmers,
joining commercially oriented FOs may not be appropriate and offers few immediate
benefits. However, other forms of collective action, for example, community-based
organizations (CBOs) may be better placed to assist poorer farmers and address
more fundamental problems in the community, such as lack of infrastructure, assets
or skills, that could help them come closer to meeting the requirements to join a
commercially oriented FO.
It is often argued that FOs and other membership-based organizations reflect
the social and cultural context in which they exist, and that it is naive to think such
organizations are abstracted from local power structures (Khan, 2007). For example,
in her study of CBOs in Sindh Province, Pakistan, Khan argues that in this particular
case “beneath it all, it is social and caste hierarchy that controls how members of CBOs
interact with each other and those around them”. Thus, if FOs are established in areas
where, for example, certain groups are marginalized or women are not seen as equal, it
is likely that FOs will also reflect these social and cultural value systems and exclude
certain groups.
Despite arguments that poor farmers and other marginalized groups are less likely
to join and benefit from FOs, this is not always the case and can depend on the context
and types of constraints that farmers face and the type of support they receive. Many
of the shrimp farmer societies in India (see Case Study 3 in Chapter 3) are located in
remote villages and made up of poor farmers. This is partly due to the fact that the
common issue that has brought them together is not just oriented around market access
but to reduce disease risks and thus costs of production. They have also benefited from
strong support and capacity building from the NaCSA along with support from the
NACA and the Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA).
10
Further, in the case of aquaculture, rural households face certain minimum requirements (such as access
to land) to enter into production, often out of reach of the extreme poor.
11
Moreover, they can end up being controlled by local elites who aim to control local market activities and
those of small farmers.
17
The case for farmers’ organizations
If interventions are focused on empowerment of these groups and are managed
carefully, it can be possible for FOs to be of benefit to both poor and better-off farmers.
For example, FOs can be started off as small groups, such as registered or unregistered
common interest groups involving poor and marginalized groups, which then grow
steadily and become formal FOs over time.
However, despite poorer farmers and other marginalized groups being less likely
to join and thus benefit directly from FOs, they may still be able to benefit indirectly
through services offered to non-members (e.g. buying produce of non-members to
meet market demand), through increased local employment and demand for labour,
through local economic growth, and through social activities supported by FOs
(Penrose-Buckley, 2007).
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