2. Translation of genres and transability of lyric words
The focus of translation studies would be shifted away from the incidental
incompatibilities among languages toward the systematic communicative factors
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E. Rowson. Brill Online, 2013.
75
shared by languages. Only in light of this new focus can such issues as equivalence
and translation evaluation be satisfactorily clarified
66
.
Ke (Ke, 1999) says that the problem of translatability or untranslatability is
closely related to man's understanding of the nature of language, meaning and
translation. From the socio-semiotic point of view, ―untranslatables‖ are
fundamentally cases of language use wherein the three categories of socio-semiotic
meaning carried by a source expression do not coincide with those of a comparable
expression in the target language. Three types of untranslatability, referential,
pragmatic, and intra-lingual may be the carrier of the message. Language-specific
norms considered untranslatable by some linguists should be excluded from the
realm of untranslatables. And since translation is a communicative event involving
the use of verbal signs, the chance of untranslatability in practical translating tasks
may be minimized if the communicative situation is taken into account. In a larger
sense, the problem of translatability is one of degree: the higher the linguistic
levels the source language signs carry meaning(s) at, the higher the degree of
translatability these signs may display; the lower the levels they carry meaning(s)
at, the lower the degree of translatability they may register.
67
Translation practice is one of the strategies a culture devises for dealing with
what we have learned to call the ―Other‖ (a term borrowed from Lefevere, 2001,
meaning a culture different from one's own—my interpretation). The development
of a translational strategy therefore also provides good indications of the kind of
society one is dealing with.
66
Nemati Limai, Amir (2015), Analysis of the Political life of Amir Alishir Navai and Exploring his Cultural,
Scientific, Social and Economic Works, Tehran & Mashhad: MFA(Cire)& Ferdowsi University,p57
67
Nemati Limai, Amir (2015), Analysis of the Political life of Amir Alishir Navai and Exploring his Cultural,
Scientific, Social and Economic Works, Tehran & Mashhad: MFA(Cire)& Ferdowsi University,p56-59
76
Cultures that are relatively homogeneous tend to see their own way of doing
things as ‗naturally', the only way, which just as naturally becomes the ‗best' way
when confronted with other ways. When such cultures themselves take over
elements from outside, they will, once again, naturalize them without too many
qualms and too many restrictions.
The less evaluative the text is, the less need there will be for its structure to
be modified in translation. Conversely, the more evaluative the text is, the more
scope there may be for modification. The less culture-bound (treaties, declarations,
resolutions, and other similar documents) a text is, the less need there will be for its
structure to be modified in translation. Conversely, the more culture-bound a text
is, the more scope there may be for modification. There are numerous examples in
both English and Uzbek that exhibit historical elements deeply rooted in the
languages. Idioms and legends always provide ready support in this respect. Once
an idiom or fixed expressions has been recognized, we need to decide how to
translate it into the target language.
Here the question is not whether a given idiom is transparent, opaque, or
misleading. Maybe it's easier to translate an opaque expression than a transparent
one. The main difficulties in the translation may be summarized as follows.
An idiom or fixed expression may have no equivalent in the target language.
One language may express a given meaning by means of a single word, another
may express it by means of a transparent fixed expression, a third may express it
by means of an idiom, and so on. So it is unrealistic to expect to find equivalent
idioms and expressions in the target language in all cases.
68
Legends are of a quite similar character. What is a legendary hero in one
language, for example, King Arthur in English may not be known in another
68
E. Subtelny: ʿAlī Shīr Navāʾī. Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: G. Krämer, D. Matringe, J. Nawas,
E. Rowson. Brill Online, 2013.
77
language, such as Uzbek. Without necessary annotation the target reader would be
certainly at a loss. But if the Uzbek legendary figure is loaned to serve the purpose
of a courageous and brave man, the readers may be wondering if the English
people also have such a legend, which may result in misunderstanding. Translation
from Uzbek into English exhibits the same problem.
Just as the Uzbek saying goes that a people of one geographical location is
different from that of another, translation of geographical terms is where another
problem is encountered. Recognition and familiarity of the geography is of
immense help to bring about the readers' association, thus making comprehension
easier. On the contrary, without a sense of geography, the readers have only their
imagination in their power to employ. Translation of the following Uzbek poem is
a case in point.
As G. Steiner (1975: 45) points out, and as much research into the reading
process has shown, each act of reading a text is in itself an act of translation, i.e. an
interpretation. We seek to recover what is ‗meant' in a text from the whole range of
possible meanings, in other words, from the meaning potential which Halliday
(1978: 109) defines as ―the paradigmatic range of semantic choice that is present in
the system, and to which the members of a culture have access in their language‖.
Inevitably, we feed our own beliefs, knowledge, attitudes and so on into our
processing of texts, so that any translation will, to some extent, reflect the
translator's own mental and cultural outlook, despite the best of impartial
intentions. No doubt, the risks are reduced to a minimum in most scientific and
technical, legal and administrative translating; but cultural predispositions can
creep in where least expected (Hatim & Mason.1990: 11). In literary translating,
the process of constant reinterpretation is most apparent. The translator's reading of
the source text is but one among infinitely many possible readings, yet it is the one
which tends to be imposed upon the readership of the TL version. Since an
important feature of poetic discourse is to allow a multiplicity of responses among
SL readers, it follows that the translator's task should be to preserve, as far as
78
possible, the range of possible responses; in other words, not to reduce the dynamic
role of the reader
69
.
The readers' purposes can be divided into two types: for comparative literary
research (intellectual) and foreign literature appreciation (aesthetic). For different
purposes the translator may translate differently. Translation is a matter of choice,
but choice is always motivated: omission, additions and alterations may indeed be
justified but only in relation to intended meaning (Hatim & Mason.1990: 12).
The translator's motivations are inextricably bound up with the socio-cultural
context in which the act of translating takes place. Consequently, it is important to
judge translating activity only within a social context. Before there is translation,
for example, there has to be a need for translation. In fact, the social context of
translating is probably a more important variable than the textual genre, which has
imposed such rigid distinctions on types of translating in the past (‗literary
translation', ‗scientific and technical translation', ‗religious translation', etc.)
Divisions of this kind tend to mask certain fundamental similarities between texts
from different fields. There are regularities of discourse procedures which
transcend the boundaries between genres and which it is our aim to describe.
Nida (1975) discusses translation from the point of view of semantic
componential analysis, which consists in common (shared) components (the
overlapping features of the single lexical units of a word field); diagnostic
(contrastive) components (features which distinguish the meaning of individual
lexical units of a word field or lexical units with more than one meaning);
supplementary components (semantically optional secondary features which often
69
E. Subtelny: ʿAlī Shīr Navāʾī. Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: G. Krämer, D. Matringe, J.
Nawas, E. Rowson. Brill Online, 2013.
79
have a connotative --in addition to fundamental meaning/denote: be the sign or
symbol of --character and can cause metaphorical extensions).
70
I have done some research from the perspective of hermeneutics which
studies meaning in human communication. Modern ideas on hermeneutics hold
that the writer may be an editor or a redactor and that he may have used sources. In
considering this aspect of discourse one must take into account the writer's purpose
in writing as well as his cultural milieu. Secondly, one must consider the narrator
in the writing who is usually different from the writer. Sometimes he is a real
person, sometimes fictional. One must determine his purpose in speaking and his
cultural milieu, taking into consideration the fact that he may be omnipresent and
omniscient. One must also take into consideration the narratee within the story and
how he hears. But even then one is not finished. One must reckon with the person
or persons to whom the writing is addressed; the reader, not always the same as the
one to whom the writing is addressed; and later readers. Thirdly, one must consider
the setting of writing, the genre (whether poetry, narrative, prophecy, etc.), the
figures of speech; the devices used, and, finally, the plot. (Hanko, 1991) Following
the above ideas, we realize that understanding and interpreting the meaning of a
discourse involves actually three factors: the author (writer), the text (or speech)
and the reader.
Jacobson (1966: 232-239) identifies three types of translation. The first is
‗translation' within the same language, referred to as intralingual translation. We
are immersed in this kind of translation whenever we use different words and
phrases to communicate similar meanings. Translation within the same language
also shares this problem of ‗equivalence' prevalent in translation from one
language to another. Jakobson points out that even synonyms do not capture
‗equivalence' of words. Thus when we replace one word by its synonym we are
70
Allworth, Edward A. (1990). The Modern Uzbeks: From the Fourteenth Century to the
Present: A Cultural History. Hoover Institution Press. p. 229-230. ISBN 978-0817987329.
80
already giving into the mode of translation. In the case of scientific discourse, the
problems associated with theory incommensurability arise out of intralingual
translation. Although theories may use words and terms in the same language, and
in fact carry over the same words into different theories, the incommensurability
may arise because of changing historical and differing social contexts in which the
words first gained currency.
The second type of translation is interlingual translation. This is what we
commonly understand as translation, where translation involves rewriting a text in
one language into another.
The third type of translation is intersemiotic translation, ―an interpretation of
verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems‖, although this seems to
be of little interest to the practitioners of translation. If translation does not merely
re-express an original text what else does it do? For Benjamin, the position prior to
actual translation is important, because it conveys that the text is more than a
text—it is a text open to translation. In this sense all texts are not translatable; not
all texts can be an original. The original is that which survives, has an ‗afterlife.' It
is this survival that beckons the translator and opens the text to translation. To
comprehend translation, we have to first understand the original as containing ―the
law governing the translation: its translatability‖ (Benjamin, 1992: 71). What does
translatability imply? It is seen as an ―essential quality of certain works,‖ supplies
a ―natural connection‖ to the original and suggests ―that a special significance
inherent in the original manifests itself in its translatability‖ (Ibid: 71). The
translatability of a work is defined in terms of the ―capacity of the work to live on.‖
Thus, ―a translation issues from the original—not so much from its life as from its
afterlife‖. Translation Studies is referred to as "Translatology" by scholars outside
the U.S. , particularly in Europe . It is generally defined as the study of the theory
and phenomena of translation. It is, according to many researchers in the field, an
emerging discipline, yet to gain the status of an independent, distinct, discipline in
the academia around the world. James S. Holmes is generally credited for his
81
"founding statement for the field" (Gentzler, 1993:92) in his paper, entitled " The
Name and Nature of Translation Studies, " originally presented to the Third
International Congress of Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. Since
then, research has been conducted with multi-disciplinary approaches in a more
systematical fashion toward the formation of contemporary translation theory in its
own right
71
.
Wilss (2001: 58) holds that in other words, the science of translation, like
Janus, has two faces. It is on the one hand the study of a process. As such, it is a
prospective science which factors the translation process and studies its underlying
transfer strategies. It is on the other hand the study of the results. Schleiermacher
thinks that the translator can either leave the writer in peace as much as possible or
bring the reader to him, or he can leave the reader in peace as much as possible and
bring the writer to him.
Taking into the consideration of all the above discussions of scholars and
specialists we come to this conclusion: Translation lays emphasis on the product
while translatology stresses a panoramic view of translation in an abstract sense.
Or rather, translation is the application of rules and strategies based on
translatology.
72
Here in this thesis apparently, our focus and stress is not in the
academic sense of translatology per se, which according to Gary Dyck, mainly
involves the study of the thinking process and methodology of translation.
Nida (1965 as quoted in Fan, 1999: 5) says, ―translation consists in
reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source
language massage, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.‖ Acco
71
E. Subtelny: ʿAlī Shīr Navāʾī. Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: G. Krämer, D. Matringe, J. Nawas,
E. Rowson. Brill Online, 2013
.
72
"About the National Library of Uzbekistan named after Alisher Navoiy". the National Library of
Uzbekistan named after Alisher Navoiy. Retrieved 14 March 2013.
82
rding to Lefevere, translations should be re-termed ‗rewritings', in order to both
raise the status of the translator and get away from the limitations of the term
‗translation' (Bassnett & Lefevere, 2001.)
Some specialists make use of the following pair of terms literal v. free
translation in the hope of shedding light on translation and clarifying certain
translation process. It has been an age-old debate concerning whether translation
should be free or literal. Some translation theorists present these two aspects of the
translation process as though they were alternatives, one or the other of which is to
be opted for at one time, depending on the translator's own brand of theory or the
prevailing orthodoxy. But, as Hatim and Mason (1997) make abundantly clear,
literalness or freedom are intrinsic properties of the relevant part of the text being
translated. That is, it would be misleading to refer to a literal or a free translation
of, say, an entire genre such as an editorial or a news report. Instead, it is more
appropriate to talk of a less literal translation of a certain part of an editorial, or a
more literal translation of a certain part of a news report. Newmark (1982) speaks
about translation in the following way: semantic translation (to render, as closely
as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact
contextual meaning the original) and communicative translation.
Naturally, actual effects on receivers of texts are difficult to gauge.
Consequently, it seems preferable to handle the issue in terms of equivalence of
intended effects , thus linking judgements about what the translator seeks to
achieve to judgements about the intended meaning of the ST speaker/writer.
Closely related to the literal versus free issue is the debate on the primacy of
content over form or vice versa. Form, or style, may be seen as the result of
motivated choices made by text producers; thus, we shall distinguish style from
idiolect, the unconscious linguistic habits of an individual language user; and the
conventional patterns of expressions which characterize particular languages.
83
In a word, style is used as a term distinguished from content in writing and it
stresses form or format. In other words, style means ‗how' whereas content refers
to ‗what'.
73
If style comes only second in priority, it certainly stands very high in
importance. It is only natural that good form conveys the content in more sufficient
and adequate way. In translation discussion, faithfulness in content has always
been emphasized and treated seriously, but faithfulness in style seems to pose more
difficulty. In literature, style is the novelist's choice of words and phrases, and how
the novelist arranges these words and phrases in sentences and paragraphs. Style
allows the author to shape how the reader experiences the work. For example, one
writer may use simple words and straightforward sentences, while another may use
difficult vocabulary and elaborate sentence structures. Even if the themes of both
works are similar, the differences in the authors' styles make the experiences of
reading the two works distinct. To sum up, after integrating the research
achievements of modern day translation circles provides the following
understanding of translation, which is universally acknowledged now. Translation
is an activity comprising the interpretation of the sense of a text in one language -
the source text - and the production of another, equivalent text in another language
- the target text . The goal of translation is to establish a relationship of equivalence
between the source and the target texts (that is to say, both texts communicate the
same message), while taking into account the various constraints placed on the
translator. (These constraints include the rules of grammar of the source language,
its writing conventions, its idioms and the like.)The term translation is also used
for the product of this procedure. Translation is also the name given to a profession
which consists of transferring ideas expressed in writing from one language to
another.
73
E. Subtelny: ʿAlī Shīr Navāʾī. Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: G. Krämer, D. Matringe, J.
Nawas, E. Rowson. Brill Online, 2013.
84
Nord (1989) puts forward the following pair of terms in talking about the
purposes of translation: Documentary ( preserve the original exoticizing setting) vs
instrumental translation (adaptation of the setting to the target culture). Sigrid
Kupsch-Losereit (quoted in Wilss, 2001) defines a translation error as an offence
against: the function of the translation, the coherence of the text, the text type or
text form, linguistic conventions, culture- and situation-specific conventions and
conditions and the language system. What is the significance of such an assertion?
The function of the translation is put at the top of the list, showing that the most
serious error is to fail to convey the original function
74
. To sum up, if the purpose
of a translation is to achieve a particular function for the target addressee, anything
that obstructs the achievement of this purpose is a translation error. Next lets move
on to study the functional classification of translation errors. Errors may occur in
every aspect of translation, as shown in the following:
1) Pragmatic: caused by inadequate solutions to pragmatic translation problems
such as a lack of receiver orientation.
2) Cultural: due to an inadequate decision with regard to reproduction or
adaptation of culture-specific conventions.
3) Linguistic: caused by an inadequate translation when the focus is on language
structures (as in foreign-language classes).
4) Text-specific: which are related to a text-specific translation problem and, like
the corresponding translation problem, can usually be evaluated from a functional
or pragmatic point of view. (cited in Nord. 2001.)
Let us herein emphasize that translating is an activity. This means that a
theory of translation can be embedded in a theory of human action or activity. The
parameters of action theory may help to explain some aspects of translation.
74
Ali Shir Nava'i Muhakamat al-lughatain tr. & ed. Robert Devereaux (Leiden: Brill)
1966,p 45-47
85
Human actions or activities are carried out by ‗agents', individuals playing
roles. When playing the role of senders in communication, people have
communicative purposes that they try to put into practice by means of texts.
Communicative purposes are aimed at other people who are playing the role of
receivers. Communication takes place through a medium and in situations that are
limited in time and place. Each specific situation determines what and how people
communicate, and it is changed by people communicating. Situations are not
universal but are embedded in a cultural habitat, which in turn conditions the
situation. Language is thus to be regarded as part of culture. And communication is
conditioned by the constraints of the situation-in-culture. In translation, senders
and receivers belong to different cultural groups in that they speak different
languages. They thus need help from someone who is familiar with both languages
(and cultures) and who is willing to play the role of translator or intermediary
between them. In professional settings, translators don't normally act on their own
account; they are asked to intervene by either the sender or the receiver, or perhaps
by a third person. From an observer's point of view, this third party will be playing
the role of ‗commissioner' or ‗initiator'; from the translator's point of view, they
will be the ‗client' or ‗customer'. Initiators may have communicative purposes of
their own or they may share those of either the sender or the receiver. Translating
thus involves aiming at a particular communicative purpose that may or may not be
identical with the one that other participants have in mind.
75
Nida (1976: 64) treats this topic too, arguing that: when the question of the
superiority of one translation over another is raised, the answer should be looked
for in the answer to another question, ‗best for whom?'. The relative adequacy of
different translations of the same text can only be determined in terms of the extent
75
Nemati Limai, Amir (2015), Analysis of the Political life of Amir Alishir Navai and Exploring
his Cultural, Scientific, Social and Economic Works, Tehran & Mashhad: MFA(Cire)&
Ferdowsi University,p56-59
86
to which each translation successfully fulfills the purpose for which it was
intended. In other words, the relative validity of each translation is seen in the
degree to which the receptors are able to respond to its message (in terms of both
form and content) in comparison with (1) what the original author evidently
intended would be the response of the original audience and (2) how that audience
did, in fact, respond. All these arguments are strong positive support of the
paramount importance of the proper understanding of the original functions as well
as the purposes before one sets out doing a piece of translation.
I agree with Benjamin (Benjamin, 1992: 77) that the ―task of the translator
consists in finding that intended effect upon the language into which he is
translating which produces in it the echo of the original‖. It is interesting that
Benjamin uses the word ‗echo.' The task of the translator can only produce the
echo of the original, not the originality of the original. The idea of the echo is that
we hear our own voices sent back to us. The echo is never strictly identical with
what has been voiced before. It also suggests something about the space, the
topography, of the domain that creates the echo. The voice that comes back to us is
similar to what we uttered but is also distorted by the response of what sends back
our voice.
76
Jumpelt (1961 as quoted in Wilss, 2001) when discussing translation
equivalence, presents in the following five pairs of principles contradicting each
other.
In analyzing the dilemma of the age-old dispute of free vs literal translation,
we find free translation would be intelligible but may convey no cultural insight
while literal translation, on the other hand, superficially preserves the original but
would be unintelligible to the reader often. In consequence, Malinowski
76
In C. E. Bosworth, E. Van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs, Ch. Pellat. The Encyclopedia of Islam VII.
Leiden—New York: E. J. Brill. pp. 90–93.
87
(1923,1935) opted for translation with commentary. What the extended
commentary did was to ‗situationalise' the text by relating it to its environment,
both verbal and non-verbal. Malinowski referred to this as the context of situation,
including the totality of the culture surrounding the act of text production and
reception. He believed the cultural context to be crucial in the interpretation of the
message, taking in a variety of factors ranging from the ritualistic (which assumes
great importance in traditional societies), to the most practical aspects of day-to-
day existence.
77
Criterion that is of fundamental importance in translating this piece may turn
out to be improper in guiding the process of translating another piece. Only when
depending on various situations and complementing criteria can a perfect piece of
translation be produced. Basic problems faced by translators in their work in broad
and general terms. This is a rather complete and through description of the
translation process, without the detailed steps of which there would be no
guarantee for the best quality of the translation
78
.
Lye (1996) says that meaning is a difficult issue. What is said here only
scratches the surface of a complex and contested area. How do we know what a
work of literature is 'supposed' to mean, or what its 'real' meaning is? There are
several ways to approach this:
1) that meaning is what is intended by the author ;
2) that meaning is created by and contained in the text itself ;
3) that meaning is created by the reader.
77
Allworth, Edward A. (1990). The Modern Uzbeks: From the Fourteenth Century to the Present: A
Cultural History. Hoover Institution Press. p. 229-230. ISBN 978-0817987329
78
E. Subtelny: ʿAlī Shīr Navāʾī. Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: G. Krämer, D. Matringe, J. Nawas,
E. Rowson. Brill Online, 2013, p 101.
88
It becomes almost impossible to know whether the same interpretations are
arrived at because the formal properties securely encode the meaning, or because
all of the 'competent' readers were taught to read the formal properties of texts in
roughly the same way. As a text is in a sense only ink-marks on a page, and as all
meanings are culturally created and transferred, the argument that the meaning is
'in' the text is not a particularly persuasive one.
79
The meaning might be more likely to be in the conventions of meaning,
traditions, and cultural codes which have been handed down, so that insofar as we
and other readers (and the author) might be said to agree on the meaning of the
text, that agreement would be created by common traditions and conventions of
usage, practice and interpretation. In different time periods, with different cultural
perspectives (including class, gender, ethnicity, belief and world-view), or with
different purposes for reading no matter what the distance in time or cultural
situation, competent readers can arrive at different readings of texts. As on the one
hand a text is a historical document, a material fact, and as on the other meaning is
inevitably cultural and contextual, the question of whether the text 'really means'
what it means to a particular reader, group or tradition can be a difficult and
complex one. Does the meaning then exist in the reader's response, her processing
or reception of the text? In a sense this is inescapable: meaning exists only insofar
as it means to someone, and art is composed in order to evoke sets of responses in
the reader (there is no other reason for it to exist, or for it to have patterns or
aesthetic qualities, or for it to use symbols or have cultural codes). But this leads us
to three essential issues. Meaning is 'social', that is, language and conventions work
only as shared meaning, and our way of viewing the world can exist only as shared
or sharable. When we read a text, we are participating in social, or cultural,
meaning. Response is not merely an individual thing, but is part of culture and
history.
79
Allworth, Edward A. (1990). The Modern Uzbeks: From the Fourteenth Century to the Present: A
Cultural History. Hoover Institution Press. p. 229-230. ISBN 978-0817987329
89
Texts constructed as literature, or 'art', have their own codes and practices,
and the more we know of them, the more we can 'decode' the text, that is,
understand it - consequently, there is in regard to the question of meaning the
matter of reader competency, as it is called, the experience and knowledge of
decoding literary texts.
You might have been nudged to insist on your having and practicing
competency in reading by insisting that any interpretation you have (a) be rooted in
(authorized by) the text itself and (b) be responsible to everything in the text -- that
is, that your interpretation of any line or action be in the context of the whole of the
work. But you may have to learn other competencies too. You may see that this
idea that meaning requires competency in reading can bring us back, as meanings
are cultural and as art is artifact, to different conventions and ways of reading and
writing, and to the historically situated understandings of the section on the
Author, above; at the least, 'meaning' requires a negotiation between cultural
meanings across time, culture, gender, class. As readers you have in fact acquired a
good deal of competency already; you are about to acquire more.
The point herein is that 'meaning' is a phenomenon that is not easily ascribed
or located, that it is historical, social, and derived from the traditions of reading and
thinking and understanding the world that you are educated about and socialized
in.
Robert Frost famously said, ―Poetry is what gets lost in translation.‖ Indeed,
translation has traditionally been married to the notion of what is lost, and this
makes sense, if one looks at a poem like a Renaissance painting: the original being
of highest quality and any replica a necessarily poor copy. But what if, like
everything else in the world, it‘s not so black and white? This examination is an
interrogation of myself and my poetics, my propensity of late to write using
translation dictionaries, to write poems full of words of which I don‘t know how to
make meaning, to experiment with re-creating the poems of writers whose
language I can‘t understand, but whose poems nonetheless (or maybe all the more)
90
mean something. The questions I am able to ask are less about semantics and more
along the lines of what is present, what is absent, and what are the ways I can
interpret a poem whose language is anathema to me? Can I still glean something
from form or tone, or as I fear, will my interpretation be just a commentary on
miscommunication?
80
In acknowledgment of our increasingly multilingual and border-shifting
world, translation scholarship in recent years has catapulted beyond the science of
converting one language into another and beyond conventional theories of
translation. Innovative and experimental poetries, postcolonial literary theorization,
and the internationalization of literature and communication are all blurring the
definitions between ―originals‖ (the concept of originality itself being highly
debatable, but more on that later) and their offspring. As globalization rewrites
national and cultural identities, so does it refine and define anew the previously
cut-and-dry notion of translation. How exciting for the formerly stodgy and
aristocratic ―translation‖: in the postcolonial era, it is revamped—wearing
fascinating glasses, new clothes, and engaging in a lively game of interdisciplinary
Twister. Why is it important to continue exploring and discussing postcolonial
translation and trans-creation theories? Allow me to plumb a few of the various
subcategories of this ever expanding forum, in order to exemplify a few of the
reasons why it matters, and highlight some of the ways in which these theories are
put to practice in contemporary English-language poetry.
Indeed, language is inextricably tied to culture. At its best, a vibrant, thriving
language is full of complexities. Navoi‘s poetry is technically oriental, yet the
―sphere of language‖ in her poems is magnified by the way she utilizes memory,
ceremony, and spirituality. Some lines are arguably more powerful in English than
they would be in Uzbek. This is poetry, and there is beauty in Navoi‘s reclamation
of a language whose people were bent on her culture‘s annihilation. Her poetry
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Allworth, Edward A. (1990). The Modern Uzbeks: From the Fourteenth Century to the Present: A
Cultural History. Hoover Institution Press. p. 229-230. ISBN 978-0817987329
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exemplifies the notion that when people create in a language, it helps that language
become vital, potent, and beautiful. For the purposes of this examination, therefore,
I will assume something that is by no means unanimously agreed upon: that it is a
benefit for texts to be translated, and that translation and trans-creation into English
can prove positive both culturally and linguistically. First, however, we must look
at translation through the lens of colonialism. Colonial translation is a one-way
exchange, a tool of the dominant culture to assimilate myths and histories of the
colonized culture and altering customs, phrases and intent so that these stories fit
within the recognized confines of the ―new‖ culture. An assimilative approach has
historically meant that anything deemed too culturally oblique or foreign in the
poem to be translated was replaced with a concept the dominant culture could
relate to. It is for this reason that translation has traditionally been paired with the
notion of what is lost. Translation, like so many other aspects of imperial rule,
suited the purposes of the dominant culture and was typically intended for an
audience of the dominant culture.
Given all this, it is no wonder that those who question the benefits of
translation into dominant languages have more than a few reservations. Still, some
translation theorists wonder, is it possible for English to redeem itself in some
way? Can poets of diverse linguistic and cultural histories use English to
communicate the untranslatable—the way a medium communicates with the spirit
world? In important ways, using English can mean acknowledging the history of
colonization, rather than rejecting it. Forcing the language to accommodate, to
bend. Language has a long memory, and it is the job of the postcolonial poet, the
writer, and even the citizen not only to choose their words wisely, but also to
remember how easily words can lie, and to consider it our duty as writers to strive
for a language that is as full and complicated and messy and culturally loaded as it
is to be human.
We are a memory, some say, of a narrative we tell ourselves. Words are our
tools to this end. Words gain meaning by existing in relation to other words just as
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we gain meaning by the ways that we exist in relation to other living beings on our
planet. When English recognizes its dark past, it says something positive about the
resiliency and adaptability of language, the acknowledgment of our
interconnectedness. If one believes in a common consciousness, or even the idea of
human contact being intrinsic in the exchange of ideas and language, we are all
talking to each other, all of the time. Language belongs to all of us, and what we
mean to say with our words is contextual, shifting. Back to the notion of the
original: it is commonly acknowledged that everything said has been said before.
Just as we cannot find our way back to an ur-tongue, we cannot find our way
forward to a final translation. Hence, there is also no master text, to which all
translations are inferior. In poetry, as well as in translation, there is no ultimate
meaning. Indeed, the ―trans‖ in translation and trans-creation indicates that we are
always moving across languages, across cultures.
With this in mind, translation and trans-creation have the power to do much
more than present a poor copy of an original or consume a dominated culture‘s
literature. With these tools, we can shake up the concept of literary property. We
can create alt-languages, and a space for them to exist. We can expand the
parameters of the accepted language of poetics. As to the exploration of this new
literary territory, Quebecan poet Jacques Brault says: Since I have been navigating
in all sorts of foreign waters, which sweep along all sorts of historical, cultural,
social and symbolic deposits, I feel more profoundly at home and I am cured of my
land sickness…. I resolved to traverse this language until I came to my own (yet
unknown) tongue, and that during this difficult and salutatory passage I would lose
myself in the other, and the other would find itself in me
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.
One of the most pivotal issues concerning translation has always been the
question of faithfulness to the text. Historically, a good translation was seen as
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E. Subtelny: Alī Shīr Navāʾī. Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: G. Krämer, D. Matringe, J.
Nawas, E. Rowson. Brill Online, 2013
.
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something that tried to stay as close to the original text as possible in language,
meter, rhyme, and content. While that literal approach still exists today,
postcolonial translators are also concerned with the cultural implications of the
text. We understand poetry in layers, and the layers of culturally specific
information that inform our understanding of the text are negotiable. Translators
must consider the information load and the limits to which a poetic translation may
be able to convey this load. The experience of the foreign is often just that–an
experience, difficult to convey without prose narrative.
Poet and translator Rosmarie Waldrop says, somewhat more poetically: The
relations between the terms keep shifting…In the end, we are left with gestures:
the gesture of analogy rather than any particular analogy, the gesture of
signification rather than any particular meaning, the gestures of endless
commentary and interpretation.
Doing away with the concept of analogy is an ideal, yet to be deemed
possible. In the same way that tolerance is no substitute for acceptance, analogy is
necessary in part because we don‘t live in a peaceful world filled with mutual
respect and a desire to understand one another. Changing a concept like analogy,
so integral to our current ways of thinking and writing, can‘t happen in a bubble. It
must be aligned with massive re-education and re-socialization. But that doesn‘t
mean we can‘t consider the possibility. What could such a literature look like? Poet
and essayist Joan Retallack expounds, ―[o]ne that does not deny the chaos, the
inarticulate, the confusing, the fragmented, the lost, the loss, but instead brings it
into form?‖ The specifics of translation often have to do with the intended
audience for a text. If a minority-language text is translated with the dominant
culture as its intended audience, as has historically been the case, linguistic and
cultural explanations will be prevalent. At the same time, most translations assume
the minority culture knows the dominant culture‘s subtext, and this assumption is a
bit of a double-edged sword. On the one hand, it continues to promote an
acceptance of cultural dominance, and on the other, it raises the bar for what is
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possible for our poetry to address. As long as the translation is happening in the
direction of minority language to dominant language, explains Maria Tymoczko, a
translation expert and professor of comparative literature at the University of
Massachusetts Amherst, the prevailing standards of Western literature exclude the
―instructional‖ or ―didactic.‖ But what if the same translation is geared toward the
minority culture or an international audience? It is a matter of ―bringing the text to
the audience‖ or ―bringing the audience to the text.‖ Which brings us back to a
fundamental question: how do we treat cultures equally and remain readable,
interesting?
Fortunately, new and exciting forays into multilingual, translational, and
trans-creational poetries are continually emerging. The most obvious approach to
postcolonial translation is of course, using established English equivalents, à la It,
by Inger Christensen. Susanna Nied‘s award-winning 1988 translation is relevant
to this discussion in part because she allows the mystery of language in general to
come through, and in part because ―it‖ itself is about language‘s power and
powerlessness and the poet‘s function in creating a world with words. This is a
criticism of the power human beings have over language because it‘s a criticism of
the power language has over human beings.
Nied translates that the world (and therefore the word) is ―something else and
more than it is / like a meaningful disagreement between us.‖ This seems such an
honest and apt description of the difficulty of translation in a postcolonial
international setting. Nied‘s approach to translation is stylistically traditional, but
exceptional in the way that she captures the kaleidoscopic possibilities of
interpretation. To be clear, Trask‘s hand extended is by no means indicative of an
egalitarian relationship between the two cultures or languages. It does however,
spur us to ask the question: is it even possible for languages to meet as equals in
poetry? This is where the idea of trans-creation comes into play, and where things
get really interesting. Writings of this sort are typically conceived in response to
situations of unequal cultural exchange, and can take many forms. I wrote this text
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knowing it was for an English publication. For a while I did not know if I would
write it in French or in English. I finally chose French but soon words were coming
to my mind in english. Then I decided to translate each paragraph. But gradually I
kept moving from one language to the other. Translating, rewriting, writing,
translating, writing, rewriting, etc. . . .―Time Out‖ cavorts between stanzas in
French and stanzas in English. It is a poem that refuses to belong to one prime
language, but is written through, with, and of both languages, as can be seen in this
section. This sort of work celebrates a quality that has often been rejected in
traditional translation, aspiring not to be either here or there, but instead pressing
out to create a space between two worlds, an opening up. Indeed, ―here,‖ has
become a ―permanently uncertain place,‖ and language used in poetry in the
contact zone exemplifies this
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.
Translation and trans-creation today confirm that we live in a shrinking
world, but a growing community. They confirm that cultures and languages are not
autonomous, but plural. Multilingual and dialectical poetry are changing the
translation scene, reminding us that language is alive and intertwined with culture.
Recognizing the reasons why we make choices to include or exclude language and
its histories is only a part of this dynamic field. In fact, what used to be considered
a ―poor‖ translation may deserve a second look. It is possible that the translation
simply didn‘t conform to theoretical norms of its time. Perhaps the translation
expressed some discomfort with language, idiomatic or dialectic, or a gap in
cultural understanding. Perhaps rather than ignore a cultural concept, replacing it
with one more familiar to the translator, those translations were simply some of the
first to step out into the often bewildering contact zone. Joan Retallack, in defining
her term ―poethical wager‖ argues that the concept includes identifying a certain
poetics of responsibility with the courage of the swerve. . . . Swerves (like
antiromantic modernisms, the civil rights movement, feminism, post-colonialist
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Alisher Navoi. Complete Works in 20 Volumes 1–18. Tashkent. 1987–2002,p 90-91
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critiques) are necessary to dislodge us from reactionary allegiances and nostalgias.
One could say that this growing body of polylingual and radical translation
work is also a ―swerve,‖ a poethical wager that bears its responsibility to history,
language, and culture. Central to this examination‘s concern is another Retallack
notion, the idea of culture as a kinetic, labyrinthine ―coastline.‖ In her words, the
―‗horizon of time‘ is an example of a class of heavily freighted metaphors . . .
whose incompletely examined historical implications exert a gravitational force
that warps the edge of the contemporary as it emerges into critical view.‖
Translation is this shifting, myriad coastline between cultures, and trans-creation is
the contact zone: vaguely definable, ever changing, and charismatic. This
sentiment echoes a previously stated concept that bears repeating: that there is no
one meaning to be found in translation, just as there is no one truth to be found in
text. This in turn confirms that the evolution of language and poetics is also a
process that has no beginning. ―Everything said has been said before,‖ seems more
hopeful and reassuring than it once did to me. Perhaps, indeed, translation and
trans-creation are not only about what is lost, but also about new solidarities, built
by a fusion of language.
Joan Retallack, quoting the esteemed, innovative, bilingual writer Samuel
Beckett, sums up this bewildering and beautiful poetic adventure. Collectively, she
says, what we are searching for is a poetics that can admit what Beckett calls ―the
mess,‖ ―the chaos.‖ As Beckett explains, ―What I am saying does not mean that
there will henceforth be no form in art. It only means that there will be new form
and that this form will be of such a type that it admit the chaos and does not try to
say that the chaos is really something else. . . . To find a form that accommodates
the mess, that is the task of the artist now.‖
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