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F R E D E R I C K E T A L .
Hyperbolic-discounting models predict that people respond especially strongly to
immediate costs and benefits, and visceral influences have powerful transient ef-
fects on immediate utilities. In combination, the two assumptions could explain a
wide range of impulsive choices and other self-control phenomena.
Measuring Time Discounting
The DU model assumes that a person’s time preference can be captured by a sin-
gle discount rate,
r
. In the past three decades there have been many attempts to
measure this rate. Some of these estimates are derived from observations of “real-
world” behaviors (for example, the choice between electrical appliances that dif-
fer in their initial purchase price and long-run operating costs). Others are derived
from experimental elicitation procedures (for example, respondents’ answers to
the question “Which would you prefer: $100 today or $150 one year from to-
day?”). Table 6.1 summarizes the implicit discount rates from all studies that we
could locate in which discount rates were either directly reported or easily com-
puted from the reported data.
Figure 6.2 plots the estimated discount factor for each study against the publi-
cation date for that study, where the discount factor is
d
5
1/(1
1
r
).
26
This figure
reveals three noteworthy observations. First, there is tremendous variability in the
estimates (the corresponding implicit annual discount rates range from
2
6 per-
cent to infinity). Second, in contrast to estimates of physical phenomena such as
the speed of light, there is no evidence of methodological progress; the range of
estimates is not shrinking over time. Third, high discounting predominates, as
most of the data points are well below 1, which represents equal weighting of
present and future.
In this section, we provide an overview and critique of this empirical literature
with an eye toward understanding these three observations. We then review the
procedures used to estimate discount rates. This section reiterates our general
theme: To truly understand intertemporal choices, one must recognize the influ-
ence of many considerations besides pure time-preference.
Confounding Factors
A wide variety of procedures have been used to estimate discount rates, but most
apply the same basic approach. Some actual or reported intertemporal preference
is observed, and researchers then compute the discount rate that this preference
implies, using a “financial” or net present value (NPV) calculation. For instance,
if a person demonstrates indifference between 100 widgets now and 120 widgets
in one year, the implicit (annual) discount rate,
r
, would be 20%, because that
value would satisfy the equation 100
5
(1/(1
1
r
))120. Similarly, if a person is
26
In some cases, the estimates are computed from the median respondent. In other cases, the au-
thors reported the mean discount rate.
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