Bolshevism: the Struggle for the Soul of the Jewish People), Winston Churchill wrote: “Now the
gang of notable personalities hiding in the big cities of Europe and America have grabbed the
Russian people by the hair and throat, and became undisputed masters of the vast Russian
empire.”
Among those who came from across the ocean there are many famous names, even more
is unknown. There was M. M. Gruzenberg. He has been in England (where he met Sun Yat-sen),
long lived in the United States, where he organized the Chicago school for immigrants, in July
1918 he returned to Moscow. In 1919 he was Consul General of the Russian Federation in
Mexico. In the same year, he was prominent in the central organs of the Comintern. He worked
in Scandinavia, Switzerland, was arrested in Scotland, and in 1923, using the name Borodin, he
was in China as the chief political adviser to the Kuomintang Central Executive Committee,
during which time he promoted Mao Tse-tung and Chou Enlai. However, Chiang Kai-shek saw
through subversion of Gruzenberg-Borodin and in 1927 expelled him from China. But
Gruzenberg survived all the dangers in the USSR in 1937. In the Soviet-German war he was (at
Dridze-Lozovsky) editor in chief of our domestic News. And in 1951, shot. (On Jewish
Bolsheviks shot in the 30s see Chapter XIX.)
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There was Agursky, who became one of the leaders of Belarus, then was arrested in 1938
and sent into exile. His father who predeceased him was the journalist M. Agursky; the son took
a path far to the left of his father’s.
There was Solomon Slepak, a prominent member of the Comintern, who returned in 1919
via Vladivostok to participate there in bloody deeds, then traveled to China in 1921 to lure Sun
Yat-sen into an alliance with the communists. (His son Vladimir gained renown as a “refusenik”
who spent most of his life trying to escape from the trap his father spent much of his life
building.)
The members of the Jewish Commissariat, S.R. Dobkovsky, the same Agursky, Cantor,
Shapiro and more were former anarchists, immigrants who arrived from London and New York,
alienated from the Russian Jewry over whom they were given authority. The task of the
Commissariat was to serve as the center of the Jewish communist movement. In August 1918 the
neo-communist Yiddish newspaper Der Emes [Truth] announced “the beginning of the
proletarian dictatorship in the Jewish street” and openly opposed the rabbis and denounced the
Talmud-Torah. In June 1919 Agursky and Stalin dissolved the Central Bureau of Jewish
Communities, representing the conservative part of the Jewish population who did not accept
the Bolshevik party.
It remains a true observation that the thrust of most Jewish socialists was mostly not
toward the Bolsheviks. But what and where were the other parties? Strengthening their positions
in the Yevsektsiya [Jewish Section] which contributed to the collapse of a number of old Jewish
political parties such as the Bund, the Zionists and Socialist Poalei, all eventually split, and a
significant portion of their leaders defected to the camp of the winners and repudiated ideas of
democratic socialism, leaders such as Rafes, M. Esther Frumkin, A. Weinstein, M . Litvakov.
How? And the Bund, whose militancy in the revolution of 1905 was so implacable even
to the Leninist line, especially about a fundamental cultural-national autonomy for the Jews?
After the establishment of Soviet power in Russia, the Bund leadership split into right and left
(1920). A significant part of the right elected to emigrate, and the left dissolved the Bund (1921)
and partially accepted the Communist Party, and served it. This included former Bundists such as
*David Zaslavsky, who for decades was a star of Stalin’s sarcastic journalism. He was
the one in charge of castigating Mandelstam and Pasternak.
*The Leplevsky brothers, Israel and Gregory. Israel defected to the Bolsheviks in 1918
and went on to a lifelong plunge into Chekism. In 1920 Gregory took a prominent position in the
NKVD, going on to become Deputy Commissar, then the chairman of People’s Commissars of
the RSFSR, then the Attorney General of the USSR. Arrested in 1939.
*Solomon Kotlyar immediately strode to the become first secretary of Orenburg,
Vologda, the Provincial Committee of the Terek, and the Orlovsky District Committees of the
Communist Party.
*Abraham Heifetz: returned to Russia after February 1917, entered the presidium of the
main committee of the Bund in the Ukraine and became a member of the Central Committee of
the Bund, but in October 1917 flipped to become the head of the Comintern .
In the 1926 census two and a half thousand former Bundists are registered as members of
the RCP. Of course, some of them later fell under the wheels, and under Stalin most of them
were subjected to severe persecution.
Bickerman exclaims: “The Bund played the role of a representative of the Jewish
working masses, but took more and more active part in Bolshevism.” And David Azbel in his
memoir partly explains the reasons for the transition of his uncle, Aaron Isaakovich Weinstein, a
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big Bundist: “He grasped earlier than others that his party, as well as other socialist parties, was
doomed. He understood that he and others could only survive and protect the interests of the
Jews if they adhered to the Bolsheviks.”
For how many was there also a motive in the communist transition to: 1) survive; 2) to
protect the interests of the Jews? At the time they managed to do both. After October the other
socialist parties, the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks, in which as we know the Jews
had leaders in abundance, did nothing effectively to stop Bolshevism; they even submitted to the
fact that the Bolsheviks dispersed the Constituent Assembly. They hesitated, hesitated,
temporized, they were too split, they declared neutrality in the Civil War while the Bolsheviks
opened a section of the Eastern Front and took the decomposing white rear.
But to be sure, among the leaders of the working resistance to the Bolsheviks in 1918 we
can find Jewish names; among the 26 signatories to the Taganka prison “Open Letter to the
Prisoners in the Case of a Labor Congress” Hebrew names, apparently, a quarter. And to these
Mensheviks the Bolsheviks were merciless. In February 1921 in Petrograd the Mensheviks
supported the dissatisfaction of angry and deceived workers, while pushing them to protests and
strikes, but hesitantly. They did not have the courage to lead the way at the time of the Kronstadt
uprising. And still they were punished.
Many Mensheviks defected to the Bolsheviks; in the early days the change of party label
was attainable with relative ease.
*Boris Magidov became political commissar of the Tenth Army, then the whole of the
Donbas, the secretary of the Poltava and Samara Gubernia, the instructor of the Central
Committee.
*Abram Deborin was promoted over all the Red Professors, and gave us lessons in
dialectical and historical materialism);
*Alexander Goyhbarg, Sibrevkom, the prosecutor at the trial of Kolchak’s ministers,
board chairman of the People’s Commissariat and the Small Sovnarkom).
*I. Lyakhovetsky-May, one of many others crushed by allegations of a “Menshevik
Union Bureau” in 1931, along with Himmer and Sukhanov, the theorist tactics of the Executive
Committee in March 1917. When the Father of the Peoples decided there was a large roundup of
them throughout the Union.
From the ranks of the SRs [Socialist Revolutionaries] who went over to Lenin may be
noted Yakov Livshits, from 1919 deputy chairman of the Chernigov Gubierna Cheka, then on to
Kharkov, then the chairman of the Kiev Cheka from which position he quickly moved up to
deputy chairman of the Ukrainian GPU.
Of the defectors from the anarcho-communists Lazar Kogan stands out. After a more
than usually bloody career in the Cheka, in 1930 Kogan became the head of GULAG and as well
wore the extra hat of the White Sea Canal NKVD. He was shot in 1939 after writing cringeing
letters to Yezhov from his cell, begging for mercy.
There is the altogether meandering biography of Ilya Keith Viytenko, a lieutenant in the
Austrian army, who came to Russia as a prisoner of war. He joined with the Bolsheviks and went
on to junior command positions in the Cheka-GPU, then the army, and in 30 years he became
one of the reformers of the Red Army.
And what of the Zionists? We remember that in 1906, they agreed and proclaimed that
they can not stay away from the all-Russian struggle against the autocratic oppression and are
actively involved in it. Contrary to this, in May 1918, when the all-Russian oppression is by no
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means less, they announce that in matters of domestic policy they will now be neutral, apparently
hoping to prevent the Bolsheviks from charging them as counterrevolutionaries.
At first it worked. All through 1918 and half of 1919 the Bolsheviks let them slide. In the
summer of 1918 Zionist still held positions in the Moscow All-Russian Congress of Jewish
Communities, and in hundreds of communities “Palestinian Week” was celebrated without
obstacle. Their newspaper Hehalutz [Youth] was allowed. Then in the spring of 1919 there some
local authorities began to close down the Zionist press. In the fall of 1919 other Zionists were
taken into custody (“spying for Britain.”) In the spring of 1920 the Zionists staged a Russian
conference in Moscow, but all its participants (90 people) were planted in the Butyrka, and got
some time. The Presidium of the Cheka announced that the Zionist ideal was
counterrevolutionary, and Zionist activity was banned in Soviet Russia. After that the Zionists
fled Russia or else began to go underground.
The thoughtful M. Heifetz appropriately reminds us that the October Revolution
coincided exactly with the Balfour Declaration, the first real step towards the creation of an
independent Jewish state. And what? “Part of the Jewish generation of that time followed Herzl
and Jabotinsky. The other part [and he added a lot of great Jews] could not stand the temptation
and filled the gang of Lenin and Trotsky and Stalin.” The very thing that Churchill was afraid of.
The way of Herzl then seemed distant and almost unreal. The way of Trotsky and Bagritsky
allowed Jews immediately to become not just an equal nation in Russia, but a privileged élite.
The most prominent defector from Zionism to Bolshevism, of course, was Lev Mehklis
of Poalei Zion. His career is well known: he was a member of Stalin’s secretariat and served on
the editorial board of Pravda, he was Chief of the Political Administration of the Red Army, the
first deputy People’s Commissar of Defense, People’s Commissar of State Control, and the
destroyer of our Crimean troops in 1942. And afterward came membership Orgburo and burial in
the Kremlin wall .
Of course, there was a significant layer of Russian Jewry which did not accept
Bolshevism. Rabbis, lecturers and famous doctors did not rush into the arms of the Bolsheviks,
nor did the mass of ordinary people. Tyrkova writes in the same place of the book: “This Jewish
predominance among the Soviet authorities was the despair of those Russian Jews who, despite
the cruel injustice of the Czarist regime in Russia sought to live a common life in a common
homeland with the Russian intelligentsia, and refused in any way to cooperate with the
Bolsheviks.” But they were not allowed a public voice. These pages are not occupied by their
names, because the winners control events.
Towering separately over the epoch are two famous terrorist acts, both committed by
Jewish hands against the Bolsheviks in 1918: the murder of Cheka commissar Moisei Uritsky by
Leonid Kannegisser, and the unsuccessful attempt with a pistol on the life of Lenin by Fanya
Kaplan. In this as well, it was Jewish destiny to be among the first.
When Kaplan fired at Lenin it appeared that the Socialist Revolutionaries were clearly
behind it, and this is now the accepted version of events. But in the case of Kannegisser, who
was a hereditary nobleman who inherited a title from his grandfather, who joined the Cadets in
the summer of 1917 and who by the way was a friend of the poet Sergei Yesenin, I fully accept
the explanation of Brand Aldanova: he was motivated by a desire to vindicate and clear the name
of the Jewish people who were being accused, with such clear reason, of responsibility for
Bolshevism and its horrors. Kannegisser wanted to provide to himself, to the Russian people, and
to history a counterweight to oppose against names like Uritsky and Zinoviev—a Jewish name.
In this spirit, before he left home with his gun in his pocket, he passed a note to his sister that he
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was committing the act to avenge the disgraceful Brest-Litovsk peace, and from feelings of
humiliation at Jewish participation in the establishment of the Bolsheviks and the Cheka.
Recent research has raised a number of questions regarding the precise nature and genesis
of both of these attacks. Suggestive theories have been advanced as to why Fanny Kaplan was
not shot by the bodyguards, but on direct order from Lenin himself, shouted to his men even as
he leaned against his car bleeding from his wounds, she was wrestled down and captured for the
purpose of closing the investigation, a handy random victim. There are arguments that
supposedly, in the case of Kannegisser, the authorities deliberately created the conditions for him
to be shot down on the street as he fled from the British Embassy in Petrograd, where he had
briefly taken shelter but which for some reason he left.
In the second case, I frankly doubt the conspiratorial version of events very much. I find
it hard to believe that the pragmatic Bolsheviks would sacrifice a ruthless and efficient secret
policeman like Uritzky, whose chilling attributes were badly needed to keep the fledgling régime
alive, purely for the sake of making some obscure and esoteric propaganda point. Nor in those
early days did Bolsheviks settle their own internal intrigues with blood; that would come years
later.
I do find it peculiar, though, that in the time of the Red Terror, when countless thousands
of people were being shot down like rabbits all over the country, almost all of them absolutely
innocent hostages, in this case where there was in fact a bloody act of counterrevolution
committed and the entire family of the assassin arrested by the Cheka as per custom, then after
the mildest of questioning and without even so much as a love tap with a truncheon or a detached
table leg, the whole Kannegisser family was released from prison, and so far as anyone knows
never molested further. Some were allowed to go abroad and the rest continued to live in the area
of Petrograd.
How in the name of the devil did that happen? How did this miraculous deliverance come
about? It must have come down from the loftiest of Bolshevik summits. From recent publications
I learn further that relatives and friends developed plans for an armed raid on the Petrograd
Cheka to release Leonid, before they learned that he lay dead in the street outside the British
Embassy. The theory which has been offered for this extraordinary leniency is that in those
perilous early times, when the uncertain régime was dependent for its very survival on an army
of youthful Jewish clerks and bureaucrats, never mind homicidal Jewish commissars of whom
Trotsky was the monarch and exemplar, they did not want to quarrel with the influential Jewish
circles in Petrograd.
The Kannegisser family preserved and practiced the Jewish faith, and his mother Rosalia
Eduardovna during one of her interrogations said that Leonid killed Moisei Uritsky because he
“went from the Jews,” i.e. abandoned his religion. And such bold and open people were
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