570
Insects
Koch, U. T., Elliott, C. J. H., Schaffner, K. H., and Kliendienst, H. U. (1988).
“The mechanics of stridulation in the cricket Gryllus campestris.”
J. Comp.
Physiol. A
162: 213–223.
Nachtigall, W. (1966). “Die Kinematick der Schlagflugelbewungen von Dipteren:
Methodische und analytisch Grundlagen zur Biophysik des Insectenflugs.”
Z.
Vergl. Physiol.
52: 155–211.
Wigglesworth, V. B. (1972).
The Principles of Insect Physiology.
Halsted.
Wood, J. (1970). “A study of the instantaneous air velocities in a plane behind
the wings of certain diptera flying in a wind tunnel.”
J. Exp. Biol.
52: 17–25.
Young, D. (1990). “Do cicadas radiate sound through their ear drums?”
J. Exp.
Biol.
151: 41–56.
51
Practical 28
Birds
Aims
To understand and synthesise the calls of birds.
Analysis
Birds make sound using an organ called the syrinx, which is their equivalent
of our voice box (larynx). Unlike the mammalian larynx which is high in the
trachea the syrinx lies deep down at the base where the bronchi split off. It is
surrounded by an air sac which acts as a resonator or coupling (via the exter-
nal tympanic membrane) to the lower breast; so not only do birds sing through
their beaks, they resonate their whole breast and throat area.
The syrinx is highly developed in songbirds (oscines) and serves many func-
tions, communicating territorial and sexual information, predator warnings,
and information about food. Elaborate song is presumed to be a demonstra-
tion of fitness and intelligence for mating calls, but some birds seem to sing
because they like to, or they mimic other sounds as if tying to make sense of
their world. Birds are unique in being animals that can control both lungs sep-
arately for vocalisation (Suthers 1990). A complex system of muscles around
the syrinx, bronchi, and trachea modulates air pressure while inhaling and
exhaling. This allows some birds to sing continuously (the nightjar can sing for
nearly 20 minutes without pause). Control of the syringial muscles gives birds
control over the amplitude and frequency of call. The neurology (Max Michael
2005) and physiology of this has been studied in depth, and it is a fascinating
process.
In the centre of figure 51.1 you can see a small, triangular-shaped compo-
nent called the pessulus that sits on the surface of a sac made of flexible tissue.
It is a hard bony material, so it has some mass and can swing from side to side
within the syrinx cavity. This sac has tight skin on its side called the semilu-
nar tympanic membrane that amplifies movement to produce sound. Directly
opposite it, on the outside of the syrinx, is a corresponding membrane that
seems to transmit sound out of the syrinx and into the thoracic cavity, to the
breast. On each side of the interbronchial sac are two lips (labia) that admit air
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |